Introduction to Computer Networks and Data Communications

Introduction to Computer Networks and
Data Communications
Learning Objectives
· Define the basic terminology of computer networks
· Recognize the individual components of the big picture of computer networks
· Outline the basic network configurations
· Cite the reasons for using a network model and how those reasons apply to current
network systems
· List the layers of the OSI model and describe the duties of each layer
· List the layers of the Internet model and describe the duties of each layer
· Compare the OSI and Internet models and list their differences and similarities
Lecture Notes
The Language of Computer Networks
To better understand the area of computer networks, you should understand the basic
broad categories of computer networks and data communications.  For example, you
should be able to define each of the following terms:
• computer network
• local area network
• metropolitan area network
• wide area network
• personal area network
• data communications
• voice network
• data network
• telecommunications
• network management
Chapter 11Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Computer Networks - Basic Configurations
Understand each of the following configurations.  Examine the figure from the text or
create your own example for each configuration.  Describe how this configuration works
in simple terms.  Describe one or more applications that use each configuration:
• terminal-to-mainframe
• microcomputer-to-mainframe
• microcomputer-to-local area network
• microcomputer-to-Internet
• local area network-to- local area network
• personal area network-to-workstation
• local area network-to-metropolitan area network
• local area network-to-wide area network
• sensor-to-local area network
• satellite and microwave
• wireless telephone
Network Architecture Models.
Know the OSI Model and its 7 layers including the basic functions performed at each
layer: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
Even though the OSI model is not the actual model used to support the Internet, its
understanding is necessary as many networks and products often refer to the OSI model
for definition.
It is also important to learn the Internet Model (or DoD model or TCP/IP model) and its 4
layers: (Network) Interface, Network, Transport, and Application.  The Internet model is
the model used to support all activities on  the Internet.
Logical and Physical Connections
To avoid future confusion, you must know the difference between a logical connection
and a physical connection.  Note that the only physical connection in a network is at the
physical or interface layer.  Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Fundamentals of Data and Signals
Learning Objectives
• Distinguish between data and signals
• Cite the advantages of digital data and signals over analog data and signals
• Identify the three basic components of a signal
• Discuss the bandwidth of a signal and how it relates to data transfer speed
• Identify signal strength and attenuation and how they are related
• Outline the basic characteristics of transmitting digital data with digital signals,
analog data with digital signals, digital data with analog signals, and analog data
with analog signals
• List and draw diagrams of the basic digital encoding techniques, including the
advantages and disadvantages of each Identify the different modulation
techniques and describe their advantages, disadvantages, and uses
• Identify the different modulation techniques and describe their advantages,
disadvantages, and uses
• Identify the two most common digitization techniques and describe their
advantages and disadvantages
• Discuss the characteristics and importance of spread spectrum encoding
techniques
• Identify the different data codes and how they are used in communication systems
Chapter Outline
1. Basics of transmission
2. Data and Signals
a. Analog versus digital
b. Fundamentals of signals
c. Loss of signal strength
3. Converting Data into Signals
a. Transmitting digital data with digital signals: digital encoding schemes
· Non-return to zero digital encoding schemes
· Manchester digital encoding schemes
· 4B/5B digital encoding scheme
b. Transmitting digital data with analog signals
Chapter 21Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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· Amplitude modulation
· Frequency modulation
· Phase modulation
c. Transmitting analog data with digital signals
· Pulse code modulation
· Delta modulation
d. Transmitting analog data with analog signals
4. Spread Spectrum Technology
5. Data Codes
a. EBCDIC
b. ASCII
Lecture Notes
Data and Signals
Information that is stored within computer systems and transferred over a computer
network can be divided into two categories: data and signals.  Data are entities that
convey meaning within a computer or computer system. If you want to transfer this data
from one point to another, either by using a physical wire or by using radio waves, the
data has to be converted into a signal.  Signals are the electric or electromagnetic
encoding of data and are used to transmit data.
Converting Data into Signals
Like data, signals can be analog or digital.  Typically, digital signals convey digital data,
and analog signals convey analog data.  However, you can use analog signals to convey
digital data and digital signals to convey analog data.  The choice of using either analog
or digital signals often depends on the transmission equipment that is used and the
environment in which the signals must travel. There are four combinations of data and
signals: digital data transmitted using digital signals, digital data transmitted using analog
signals, analog data transmitted using analog signals, and analog data transmitted using
digital signals.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Spread Spectrum Technology
Using a spread spectrum transmission system, it is possible to transmit either analog or
digital data using an analog signal.  However, unlike other encoding and modulation
techniques, only an intended receiver with the same type of transmission system can
accept and decode the transmissions.  The idea behind spread spectrum transmission is to
bounce the signal around on seemingly random frequencies rather than transmit the signal
on one fixed frequency.  Anyone trying to eavesdrop will not be able to listen because the
transmission frequencies are constantly changing.
Data Codes
One of the most common forms of data transmitted between a sender and a receiver is
textual data.  This textual information is transmitted as a sequence of characters.  To
distinguish one character from another, each character is represented by a unique binary
pattern of 1s and 0s.  The set of all textual characters or symbols and their corresponding
binary patterns is called a data code.  Two important data codes are EBCDIC and ASCII.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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The Media: Conducted and Wireless
Learning Objectives
· Outline the differences between Category 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5e, 6, and 7 twisted pair wire.
· Outline the characteristics of coaxial cable including the advantages and
disadvantages.
· Outline the characteristics of fiber optic cable including the advantages and
disadvantages.
· Outline the characteristics of terrestrial microwave systems including the advantages
and disadvantages.
· Outline the characteristics of satellite microwave systems including the advantages
and disadvantages as well as the differences between low earth orbit, middle earth
orbit, geosynchronous earth orbit, and highly elliptical earth orbit satellites.
· Describe the basics of wireless radio, including AMPS, D-AMPS, PCS systems, and
third generation wireless systems.
· Outline the characteristics of pager systems including the advantages and
disadvantages.
· Outline the characteristics of short-range transmissions, including Bluetooth
· Describe the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of wireless application
protocol
· Outline the characteristics of broadband wireless systems including the advantages
and disadvantages.
· Apply the media selection criteria of cost, speed, distance and expandability,
environment, and security to various media in a particular application.
Chapter Outline
1. What is a transmission media
2. Conducted Media
a. Twisted pair wire
b. Coaxial cable
c. Fiber optic cable
3. Wireless Media
a. Terrestrial microwave transmission
b. Satellite microwave transmission
Chapter 31Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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c. Mobile telephones
d. Cellular digital packet data
e. Pagers
f. Infrared transmissions
g. Bluetooth
h. Wireless application protocol
i. Broadband wireless systems
4. Media Selection Criteria
a. Cost
b. Speed
c. Distance and expandability
d. Environment
e. Security
Lecture Notes
Introduction
All communications media can be divided into two categories: physical or conducted
media, such as wires, and radiated or wireless media, which use radio waves.  Conducted
media include twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable.  In wireless
transmission, various types of electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, are used to
transmit signals. This chapter examines seven basic groups of wireless media used for the
transfer of data: terrestrial microwave transmissions, satellite transmissions, cellular radio
systems, personal communication systems, pagers, infrared transmissions, and
multichannel multipoint distribution service.
Twisted Pair Wire
The oldest, simplest, and most common type of conducted media is twisted pair wires.
Twisted pair is almost a misnomer, as one rarely encounters a single pair of wires. To
help simplify the numerous varieties, twisted pair can be specified as Category 1-5 and is
abbreviated as CAT 1-5.  While still a little away from being a published specification,
Category 6 twisted pair should support data transmission as high as 200 Mbps for 100
meters while Category 7 twisted pair will support even higher data rates.  If you
determine that the twisted pair wire needs to go through walls, rooms, or buildings where
there is sufficient electromagnetic interference to cause substantial noise problems,
shielded twisted pair can provide a higher level of isolation from that interference than
unshielded twisted pair wire, and thus a lower level of errors.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, in its simplest form, is a single wire wrapped in a foam insulation,
surrounded by a braided metal shield, then covered in a plastic jacket.  The braided metal
shield is very good at blocking electromagnetic signals from entering the cable and
producing noise. Because of its good shielding properties, coaxial cable is very good at
carrying analog signals with a wide range of frequencies. There are two major coaxial
cable technologies, depending on the type of signal each carries: baseband or broadband.
Coaxial cable also comes in two primary physical types: thin coaxial cable and thick
coaxial cable.
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cable (or optical fiber) is a thin glass cable approximately a little thicker than
a human hair surrounded by a plastic coating. A light source, called a photo diode, is
placed at the transmitting end and quickly switched on and off.  The light pulses travel
down the glass cable and are detected by an optic sensor called a photo receptor on the
receiving end. Fiber optic cable is capable of transmitting data at over 100 Gbps (that’s
100 billion bits per second!) over several kilometers. In addition to having almost errorfree high data transmission rates, fiber optic cable has a number of other advantages over
twisted pair and coaxial cable.  Since fiber optic cable passes electrically nonconducting
photons through a glass medium, it is immune to electromagnetic interference and
virtually impossible to wiretap.
Wireless Media
All wireless systems employ radio waves at differing frequencies.  The FCC strictly
controls which frequencies are used for each particular type of service.  The services
covered in this section will include terrestrial microwave transmissions, satellite
transmissions, cellular radio systems, personal communication systems, pagers, infrared
transmissions, and multichannel multipoint distribution service Terrestrial microwave
transmission systems transmit tightly focused beams of radio signals from one groundbased microwave transmission antenna to another. Satellite microwave transmission
systems are similar to terrestrial microwave systems except that the signal travels from a
ground station on earth to a satellite and back to another ground station on earth, thus
achieving much greater distances than line-o f-sight transmission. Satellites orbit the earth
from four possible ranges: low earth orbit (LEO), middle earth orbit (MEO),
geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO), and highly elliptical earth orbit (HEO). Two basic
categories of mobile telephone systems currently exist: cellular telephone and personal
communication systems (PCS). Cellular digital packet data (CDPD) technology supports
a wireless connection for the transfer of computer data from a mobile location to the
public telephone network and the Internet. Another wireless communication technology
that has grown immensely in popularity within the last decade is the pager. Infrared
transmission is a special form of radio transmission that uses a focused ray of light in the
infrared frequency range. A broadband wireless system is one of the latest techniques for Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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delivering Internet services into homes and businesses.  Bluetooth transmissions will
support the new short-range personal area networks, and wireless application protocol
will support cellular telephone to Internet connections.
Media Selection Criteria
When designing or updating a computer network, the selection of one type of media over
another is an important issue. The principal factors yo u should consider in your decision
include cost, speed, expandability, distance, environment, and security.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Making Connections
Learning Objectives
· Identify a standard modem and cite its basic operating characteristics
· Discuss the advantages of the newer digital modems and recognize why they do not
achieve the high transfer speeds as advertised
· List the alternatives to traditional modems, including T1 modems, cable modems,
IDSN modems, and DSL modems.
· Recognize the uses of a modem pool and its advantages and disadvantages
· List the four components of all interface standards
· Discuss the basic operations of the EIA-232F interface standard
· Cite the advantages of FireWire and Universal Serial Bus interface standards
· Outline the characteristics of asynchronous and synchronous data link interfaces
· Recognize the difference between half duplex, full duplex, and simplex connections
· Identify the operating characteristics of terminal- to-mainframe connections and why
they are unique from other types of computer connections
Chapter Outline
1. Modems
a. Basic modem operating principles
b. Data transmission rate
c. Standard telephone operations
d. Connection negotiation
e. Compression and error correction
f. Facsimile
g. Security
h. Self- testing (loop back)
i. Internal versus external models
j. Modems for laptops
3. The 56K Digital Modem
4. Alternatives to Traditional Modems
a. Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU)
b. Cable modems
c. ISDN modems
Chapter 41Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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d. DSL modems
7. High-speed Interface Protocols
a. FireWire
b. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
8. Data Link Connections
a. Asynchronous connections
b. Synchronous connections
c. Half duplex, full duplex, and simplex connections
Lecture Notes
Introduction
To better understand the interconnection between a computer and a device such as a
modem requires you to understand the concept of interfacing.  Interfacing a device to a
computer is considered a physical layer activity since it deals directly with analog signals,
digital signals, and hardware components.  We will examine the four basic components
of an interface¾electrical, mechanical, functional and procedural¾and then introduce
several of the more common interface standards.
Modems
Today’s modems are complex and offer so many functions and features that the user
manuals accompanying them are sometimes hundreds of pages long.  For example, most
contemporary modems include functions such as support for multiple transmission rates,
standard telephone operations, connection negotiation, compression, error correction,
facsimile transmission, security, and loop-back testing.  Modems can also be physically
characterized by whether they are internal or external models and whether they are
suitable for use with a laptop computer.
The 56k Digital Modem
Approximately two years after the 33,600 bps modem was announced, the 56,000 bps
modem was announced.  Did something change to allow the faster transmission speed, or
were the industry experts wrong?  The experts were correct¾two important facts
changed with the 56,000 bps modems: digital signaling was introduced, and the signal
power level was increased.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Alternatives to Traditional Modems
There are four alternative transmission technologies available, other than the traditional
telephone line, that can be used to connect a computer into a remote network system: T-1
digital telephone lines, cable television networks, Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), and Digital Subscriber Line (DSL).  Each of these transmission technologies
requires a particular kind of device that converts the digital data of a computer to the
proper form for transmission.
Modem Pools
A modem pool is a relatively inexpensive technique that allows multiple workstations to
access a modem without placing a separate modem on each workstation. Modem pools
are also used to allow multiple outside users to dial into a computer system.
Interfacing a Computer to Modems and Other Devices
Interfacing is a complex area of study.  It is a relatively technical process and varies
greatly depending upon the type of device, the computer, and the desired connection
between the device and computer. Various organizations set about creating a standard
interface between devices such as computers and modems.  An interface standard
consists of four parts or components: the electrical component, the mechanical
component, the functional component, and the procedural component.
High-speed Interface Protocols
Interface standards such as EIA-232F, X.21, and Hayes have existed for many years and,
by current standards, are relatively complex to create and difficult to support.  They were
designed primarily to support modems.  Computer designers have been working for many
years trying to create a new interface that is flexible and fast and supports not only
modems but the growing array of peripheral devices such as document scanners and
video cameras.  Two new interface standards that have great potential are FireWire and
Universal Serial Bus.
Data Link Connections
Assuming that the physical layer connections are already defined by some protocol such
as EIA-232F, what is the basic form of the data that is passed between sender and
receiver?  Is the data transmitted in single-byte blocks, or does the connection create a
larger, multiple-byte block?  The former connection is an example of an asynchronous
connection, while the latter is a synchronous connection.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Multiplexing: Sharing a Medium
Learning Objectives
· Describe frequency division multiplexing and list its applications, advantages, and
disadvantages
· Describe synchronous time division multiplexing and list its applications, advantages,
and disadvantages
· Outline the basic multiplexing characteristics of both T1 and ISDN telephone systems
· Describe statistical time division multiplexing and list its applications, advantages,
and disadvantages
· Cite the main characteristics of dense wavelength division multiplexing and its
advantages and disadvantages
· Cite the main characteristics of code division multiplexing and its advantages and
disadvantages
Chapter Outline
1. What is multiplexing
2. Frequency Division Multiplexing
3. Time Division Multiplexing
a. Synchronous time division multiplexing
b. T-1 multiplexing
c. ISDN multiplexing
d. SONET multiplexing
e. Statistical time division multiplexing
4. Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
5. Code Division Multiplexing
6. Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques
Chapter 51Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Lecture Notes
Introduction
Under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one signal at any moment in
time. Many times, however, we want a medium to carry multiple signals at the same
time. This technique of transmitting multiple signals over a single medium is
multiplexing.  Multiplexing is a technique performed at the physical layer of the OSI
model or the interface layer of the Internet model.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing is the assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges
to each “user” of a medium. So that multiple users can share a single medium, each user
is assigned a channel.  A channel is an assigned set of frequencies that is used to transmit
the user’s signal.
Time Division Multiplexing
Time division multiplexing directly supports digital signals.  In time division
multiplexing, sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available transmission
time on a medium among users. Since time division multiplexing was introduced in
1960s, it has split into two roughly parallel but separate technologies: synchronous time
division multiplexing and statistical time division multiplexing.
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Dense wavelength division multiplexing is a fairly new technology that multiplexes
multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line.  Unlike frequency division
multiplexing, which assigns input sources to separate sets of frequencies, and time
division multiplexing, which divides input sources by time, wave division multiplexing
uses different wavelength lasers to transmit multiple signals.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Code Division Multiplexing
This multiplexing technique assigns a multiple-bit sequence to each transmitter’s binary 1
and binary 0.  When all transmitters transmit at the same time, the receiver sums all
received values and performs a mathematical computation on the sums to separate one
code from another.
Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency division multiplexing relies on analog signaling and is the simplest and most
noisy of all the multiplexing techniques.  Synchronous time division multiplexing is also
relatively straight forward, and like frequency division multiplexing, input devices that
have nothing to transmit can waste transmission space.  The big advantage of
synchronous TDM is the lower noise during transmission.  Statistical TDM is one step
above synchronous TDM because it transmits data only from those input devices that
have data to transmit.  Thus, statistical TDM wastes less bandwidth on the transmission
link.  Dense wavelength division multiplexing is a very good, albeit expensive, technique
for transmitting multiple concurrent signals over a fiber optic line.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Errors, Error Detection, and Error
Control
Learning Objectives
· Identify the different types of noise commonly found in computer networks
· Specify the different error prevention techniques and be able to apply an error
prevention technique to a type of noise
· Compare the different error detection techniques in terms of efficiency and efficacy
· Perform simple parity calculations, and enumerate their strengths and weaknesses
· Cite the advantages of cyclic redundancy checksum, and specify what types of errors
cyclic redundancy checksum will detect
· Differentiate the three basic forms of error control, and describe under what
circumstances each may be used
Chapter Outline
1. Noise, errors, error prevention, detection and control
2. Noise and Errors
a. White noise
b. Impulse noise
c. Crosstalk
d. Echo
e. Jitter
f. Delay distortion
g. Attenuation
3. Error Prevention
4. Error Detection Techniques
a. Parity checks
· Simple parity
· Longitudinal parity
b. Cyclic redundancy checksum
Chapter 61Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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5. Error Control
a. Do nothing
b. Return a message
· Stop and wait ARQ
· Sliding window protocol
· Go-back-N ARQ
· Selective-reject ARQ
c. Correct the error
Lecture Notes
Introduction
Given that noise is inevitable and errors happen, something needs to be done to detect
error conditions. This chapter examines some of the more common error detection
methods and compares them in terms of efficiency and efficacy. Once an error has been
detected, what action should a receiver take?  There are three options:  ignore the error,
return an error message to the transmitter, or correct the error without help from the
transmitter.
Noise and Errors
Transmitted data—both analog and digital—are susceptible to many types of noise and
errors. Copper-based media have traditionally been plagued with many types of
interference and noise.  Satellite, microwave, and radio networks are also prone to
interference and crosstalk.  Even near-perfect fiber optic cables can introduce errors into
a transmission system, though the probability of this happening is less than with the other
types of media.
Error Prevention
Since there are so many forms of noise and errors, and since one form of noise or another
is virtually a given, every data transmission system must include precautions to reduce
noise and the possibility of errors. If you can reduce the possibility of noise before it
happens, the transmitting station may not have to slow down its transmission stream.
With proper error prevention techniques, many types of errors can be reduced.
Error Detection Techniques
Despite the best attempts at prevention, errors still occur. If an error is detected, it is
typical to perform some type of request for retransmission. Error detection techniques Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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themselves can be relatively simple or relatively elaborate.  Generally, simple techniques
do not provide the same degree of error checking as more elaborate schemes.  For
example, the simplest error detection technique is simple parity.  It adds a single bit to a
character of data, but catches the fewest number of errors.  At the other end of the
spectrum is the most elaborate and most effective technique available today: cyclic
redundancy checksum.  Although it is more complex and typically adds 16 bits of error
detection code to a block of data, it is the most effective error detection technique ever
devised.
Error Control
Once an error is detected in the received data transmission stream, what is the receiver
going to do about it? The receiver can do one of three things: nothing, return a message to
the transmitter asking it to resend the data packet that was in error, or correct the error.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Local Area Networks: The Basics
Learning Objectives
· State the definition of a local area network.
· List the primary function, activities, and application areas of a local area network.
· Cite the advantages and disadvantages of local area networks.
· Identify the physical and logical local area network topologies.
· Cite the characteristics of wireless local area networks and their medium access
control protocols.
· Specify the different medium access control techniques.
· Recognize the different IEEE 802 frame formats
· Describe the common local area network systems
Chapter Outline
1. Parts of the OSI
2. Primary Function of Local Area Networks
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Local Area Networks
4. Basic Local Area Network Topologies
a. Bus/tree topology
b. Star-wired bus topology
c. Star-wired ring topology
d. Wireless LANs
e. Comparison of bus, star-wired bus, star-wired ring and wireless topolo gies
5. Medium Access Control Protocols
a. Contention-based protocols
b. Round robin protocol
c.   Reservation protocols
6. Medium Access Control Sublayer
a. IEEE 802 Frame Formats
Chapter 71Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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7. Local Area Network Systems
a. Ethernet
b. IBM token ring
c. Fiber data distributed interface (FDDI)
d. 100VG-AnyLAN
Lecture Notes
Introduction
A local area network (LAN) is a communication network that interconnects a variety of
data communicating devices within a small geographic area, and broadcasts data at high
data transfer rates with very low error rates. Since the local area network first appeared in
the 1970s, its use has become widespread in commercial and academic environments.  It
would be very difficult to imagine a collection of personal computers within a comp uting
environment that does not employ some form of local area network. This chapter begins
by discussing the basic layouts or topologies of the most commonly found local area
networks, followed by the medium access control protocols that allow a workstation to
transmit data on the network.  We will then examine most of the common local area
network products such as Ethernet and token ring.
Primary Function of a Local Area Network
The majority of users expect a local area network to perform the primary function of
sharing resources.  This often includes the following applications: file serving, database
and application serving, print serving, electronic mail, remote links, video transfers,
process control and monitoring, and distributed processing.Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Local Area Networks
Local area networks have several advantages, including: hardware and software sharing,
workstation survival during network failure, component and system evolution,
heterogeneous mix of hardware and software, and access to other LANs, WANs, and
mainframe computers.  Disadvantages include complexity, maintenance costs, and the
network is only as strong as the weakest link.
Basic Network Topologies
Local area networks are interconnected using one of four basic configurations, or
topologies: bus/tree, star-wired bus, star-wired ring, and wireless.  The choice of topology
is occasionally dictated by the physical environment in which the local area network is to
be placed.  More than likely, the choice of a topology is determined by other factors such
as a preferred access method, data transfer speeds, and brand loyalty.  Let’s examine each
of the four topologies, paying special attention to advantages and disadvantages.
Medium Access Control Protocols
A medium access control protocol is part of the software that allows a workstation to
place data onto a local area network.  Depending on the network’s topology, several types
of protocols may be applicable.  The bottom line with all medium access control
protocols is this: since a local area network is a broadcast network, it is imperative that
only one workstation at a time be allowed to transmit its data onto the network.  In the
case of a broadband local area network, which can support multiple channels at the same
time, it is imperative that only one workstation at a time be allowed to transmit its data
onto a channel on the network. There are three basic categories of medium access control
protocols for local area networks: contention-based protocols, such as carrier sense
multiple access with collision detection; round robin protocols, such as token passing;
and reservation protocols, such as demand priority.
Medium Access Control Sublayer
Although the seven- layer OSI model was designed to support most typ es of
communication systems, it fell short in several areas. One of these areas was the data link
layer.  Thus, the data link layer has been split into two sublayers: the medium access
control sublayer and the logical link control sublayer.  The medium access control
(MAC) sublayer works more closely with the physical layer and contains a header,
computer (physical) addresses, error detection codes, and control information. The
logical link control (LLC) sublayer is primarily responsible for logical addressing and
providing error control and flow control information.  Data Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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IEEE 802 Frame Formats
To standardize many of the local area network protocols, IEEE created a series of
protocols called the IEEE 802 suite of protocols.  With the IEEE 802 standards, the frame
formats for data at the medium access control (MAC) sublayer were also created.  Thus,
as data comes down from the application layer through the lower layers of the
communications model and arrives at the MAC sublayer, MAC software places the data
into a unique frame format, ready for transmission across the medium (the physical
layer).
Local Area Network Systems
The discussion of local area networks started by examining the main types of network
topologies: bus, star-wired bus, ring, and wireless. Then the three major categories of
medium access control protocols that can operate on these different topologies were
introduced: CSMA/CD, token passing, and demand priority.  Actual products or local
area network systems that are found in a typical computer environment.  Four of the most
popular local area network systems are Ethernet, IBM token ring, fiber data distributed
interface, and 100VG-AnyLAN.
Wireless Networks
Learning Objectives
· What are wireless networks
· How are they used
· Types of wireless systems
Fixed Wireless Access (last mile)
Wide Area Wireless Data Services (WWANs)
Cellular Systems
Satellite Systems & Paging Systems
HomeRF (SWAP)
Bluetooth
Wireless LANs , also know as or WLANs
WiFi
WiFi5
From LectureData Comm. & Computer Networks, Second Edition
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· HomeRF vs Bluetooth vs WiFi
· Bluetooth – piconets and scattenets
· Bluetooth issues:
Cost
Limited support
Shortcomings in protocol itself
Positioning in marketplace
Conflicts with other devices in radio spectrum
· 802.11b WiFI (wireless Ethernet)
· Wireless NICs
· Access points APs
· Base station
· Bridge to wired LANs
· Ad Hoc modes
· Infrastructure Mode, also called Basic Service Set (BSS), has wireless clients and an
access point
· More access points can be added to create an Extended Service Set (ESS)
· Wireless Gateway
· All WLAN functions in physical and data link areas of OSI
· 802.11b uses Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) with modified procedure
known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)