A cornerstone of successful social interchange is the ability to anticipate each other’s intentions or actions. While generating these internal predictions is essential for constructive social behavior, their single neuronal basis and causal underpinnings are unknown.
Authors discover in their work published in the journal Cell, specific neurons in the primate dorsal anterior cingulate that selectively predict an opponent’s yet unknown decision to invest in their common good or defect and distinct neurons that encode the monkey’s own current decision based on prior outcomes.
Mixed population predictions of the other was remarkably near optimal compared to behavioral decoders. Moreover, disrupting cingulate activity selectively biased mutually beneficial interactions between the monkeys but, surprisingly, had no influence on their decisions when no net-positive outcome was possible.
These findings identify a group of other-predictive neurons in the primate anterior cingulate essential for enacting cooperative interactions and may pave a way toward the targeted treatment of social behavioral disorders.
Head transplants, or body transplants depending on how you look at them, are not just a thing of quirky horror movies. The first documented procedure was carried out back in the ‘50s when surgeon and transplant pioneer Vladimir Demikhov grafted the head and forelimbs of a puppy onto the body of a different dog. Disturbingly, he followed this with his more famous work, which involved the creation of two-headed dogs. Unsurprisingly, none of his animals lasted for more than a few days.
While ethically questionable, these procedures ultimately led to the first successful head transplant on a monkey in 1970 by Dr. Robert White, who was apparently inspired by Demikhov’s work. Although White demonstrated the feasibility of the procedure, he didn’t bother to attempt to fuse the spinal cords of the donor monkey with the recipient, so it was paralyzed and couldn’t breathe without assistance. Although little has been done subsequently, medicine has progressed by leaps and bounds since then. So much so that one neurosurgeon believes that the procedure could soon be carried out on humans, and he has just published an outline of what the surgery would potentially involve.
According to the doctor, Sergio Canavero, the major obstacles to success—such as the risk of the body rejecting the head—can now be overcome thanks to modern medicine, and with a few further advances, the procedure could be ready as soon as 2017. That being said, just because it can be done, that does not mean it will—there are major ethical issues that would need to be considered before it can be approved. Those aside, this kind of dramatic surgery could offer hope to people whose organs are plagued with cancer, or those who have suffered major accidents. That’s why Canavero is now trying to recruit a team to further explore the possibility of such a technique and plans to announce the project later this year, according to New Scientist.
So what would the surgery involve? First, the recipient’s head would have to be cooled to keep the cells alive, as would the recently deceased donor. Next, the neck is cut into and the blood vessels are hooked up by a series of small tubes. After the spinal cords are neatly severed, the head is then moved onto the donor body, which is ready for the trickiest and most crucial part: joining up the ends of the spinal cords.
To do this, Canavero suggests using a substance called polyethylene glycol, which would help fatty cell membranes meld together. The final part of the procedure involves stitching up the blood vessels and muscles before putting the patient into a coma for up to a month. After intense physiotherapy, the patient should be able to use their body and walk. Although there is a risk of rejection, as with any transplant, Canavero points out that immunosuppressive drugs should prevent this from happening.
However, many of the surgeons that the New Scientist contacted said the idea sounded “too outlandish,” while others simply refused to provide any remark at all. One of those who did comment was Harry Goldsmith, a clinical professor of neurological surgery at the University of California, Davis, who said: “This is such an overwhelming project, the possibility of it happening is very unlikely. I don't believe it will ever work.”
Alongside the ethical considerations of such a surgery, some have expressed concernsthat it could lead to people wanting to exchange their bodies for cosmetic reasons, so obviously if it does become legalized, strict regulations will have to be in place. Since the idea has been met with some strong opposition by those in the field of medicine, and many believe it simply won’t work, it will be interesting to see what unravels over the next couple of years.
The Sri Bugga Ramalingeswara Swamy Temple is one of the finest surviving examples of Vijayanagara architecture in South India. It is located at Tadipatri, in Anantapur (Ananthapuramu) District, Andhra Pradesh, on the southern bank of the Penna (Pennar) River.
History
The temple was built between 1490 and 1509 CE during the Vijayanagara Empire.
It was commissioned by Pemmasani Ramalinga Nayudu I, a renowned chieftain of the Vijayanagara rulers.
The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, worshipped as Sri Bugga Ramalingeswara Swamy.
Why is it called "Bugga"?
The Telugu word "Bugga" means natural spring. A perennial underground spring continuously flows into the sanctum and bathes the Swayambhu (self-manifested) Shiva Linga, making this temple unique among Shiva temples in India.
Architectural Highlights
The Sri Bugga Ramalingeswara Swamy Temple at Tadipatri is regarded by architectural historians as one of the masterpieces of late Vijayanagara temple architecture (15th–16th century). Its extraordinary sculptural richness rivals the famous temples at Hampi and Lepakshi, making it one of the finest examples of granite stone craftsmanship in South India.
1. Temple Layout
The temple follows the traditional Dravidian architectural plan, consisting of:
Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum): Houses the self-manifested (Swayambhu) Shiva Linga.
Ardha Mandapa: Transitional hall connecting the sanctum and the main hall.
Mukha Mandapa: A large pillared assembly hall used for worship and festivals.
Prakaras: Enclosing walls with richly carved gateways.
Vimana: The tower above the sanctum, covered with sculptural decoration.
2. The Unfinished Gopurams
One of the temple's most distinctive features is its unfinished gateway towers (gopurams).
Architectural historian James Anderson described them as "wonders" because even though they remain incomplete, they display exceptionally refined carving.
The north gopuram is considered the most elaborate, containing hundreds of miniature sculptures carved with remarkable precision.
3. Sculptural Program
The temple walls function as a stone narrative, illustrating major Hindu scriptures.
Ramayana Panels
The reliefs depict scenes such as:
Rama breaking Shiva's bow
Marriage of Rama and Sita
Exile to the forest
Hanuman's journey to Lanka
Battle with Ravana
Coronation of Rama (Pattabhishekam)
Each episode is carved in sequential panels, allowing devotees to "read" the epic while circumambulating the temple.
Mahabharata Panels
The sculptures also portray:
Krishna as Arjuna's charioteer
The Bhagavad Gita discourse
Bhishma on the bed of arrows
Episodes involving Bhima and Duryodhana
Various scenes from the Kurukshetra war
4. Pillars – A Showcase of Vijayanagara Sculpture
The mandapa pillars demonstrate extraordinary craftsmanship.
They feature:
Dancing maidens
Musicians
Warriors
Guardians (Dvarapalas)
Yalis (mythical lion-like creatures)
Makaras (mythical aquatic creatures)
Floral scrolls
Decorative geometric patterns
Several pillars are carved so deeply that they appear almost detached from the parent stone, showcasing the sculptors' mastery.
5. Musical Pillars
Near the Vishnu shrine are seven slender stone pillars that resonate with the seven musical notes (Saptaswaras) when gently tapped.
These were carefully engineered by selecting suitable granite and shaping each pillar to produce a distinct tone—a remarkable achievement in medieval stone craftsmanship.
6. Ceiling Carvings
The ceilings display:
Fully bloomed inverted lotus medallions
Concentric floral designs
Geometric mandalas
Divine figures arranged in circular compositions
The depth and symmetry of these carvings demonstrate advanced stone-cutting techniques.
7. Vimana (Sanctum Tower)
The two-tiered (Dvitala) Dravidian vimana is richly decorated with:
Shiva in various forms
Vishnu avatars
Durga as Mahishasuramardini
Ganesha
Celestial musicians (Gandharvas)
Dancing apsaras
Kirtimukha (protective face motifs)
These sculptures combine religious symbolism with artistic elegance.
8. Decorative Motifs
The temple incorporates numerous symbolic carvings, including:
Elephants representing strength and stability
Horses symbolizing royal power
Hamsas (swans) representing purity
Parrots pecking fruit, symbolizing abundance
Creepers and lotus motifs signifying prosperity
The Vijayanagara imperial emblem featuring the Varaha (boar) along with the sun and moon, expressing royal authority and eternal sovereignty.
9. Natural Spring in the Sanctum
The defining architectural and spiritual feature is the perennial underground spring (Bugga), which continuously bathes the Shiva Linga. This required careful planning so that flowing water remained integrated into the sanctum without undermining the stone structure—an impressive feat of hydraulic engineering as well as sacred design.
10. Why the Temple is Architecturally Important
Architectural historians value the Bugga Ramalingeswara Temple because it:
Represents the mature phase of Vijayanagara architecture.
Combines structural engineering with exceptionally intricate sculpture.
Integrates mythology, religion, music, and symbolism into a unified architectural program.
Preserves one of the richest collections of granite relief sculpture in South India.
Demonstrates the high level of artistic achievement attained by the artisans of the Pemmasani Nayaks under the Vijayanagara Empire.
Magnificent Dravidian-style temple with intricate stone carvings.
Beautiful sculptures depicting scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The temple has unfinished gopurams (gateway towers), considered architectural marvels.
The seven musical pillars near the Vishnu shrine produce the seven musical notes (Saptaswaras) when gently struck.
The Shiva Linga faces west, an uncommon feature in Hindu temples.
Festivals
The most important festival celebrated here is Maha Shivaratri, during which thousands of devotees visit the temple. Annual Brahmotsavam celebrations are also held with great devotion.
Recent economic and political history has extensively shown that high growth alone does not necessarily lead to better social outcomes. Over the past few decades, many developing countries experienced strong growth episodes, but relatively few posted significant declines in poverty, inequality, and unemployment (see Commission on Growth and Development 2008, Dollar and Kraay 2002 and Dollar et al. 2013). Growth has to be inclusive or broad-based so that countries to reap the most from it (Ianchovichina and Gable 2012, Anand et al. 2013). In a nutshell, it matters whether the underlying quality of growth is good.
The ‘quality of growth’ has therefore become part of the popular lexicon over the past few years. The explosion of interest in the quality of growth, and more broadly in inclusive growth, reflects this realisation. A simple benchmark using a trend search on Google reveals vivid and growing interest in the topic.
Measuring the quality of growth: New approach
Yet, the concept of quality of growth often means different things to different people. This makes it difficult to understand what exactly people are talking about, all the more given that a formal quantification is missing so far in the literature. More to the point, can we measure the quality of growth?
Recognising this state of affairs, we set out to develop a more rigorous statistical approach. In our recent working paper (Mlachila et al. 2014), we build on Martinez and Mlachila (2013), and argue that good quality growth is one that is strong, stable, sustainable, increases productivity, and leads to socially desirable outcomes, such as improved standards of living and poverty alleviation. To assess all these aspects statistically, we develop a new quality of growth index. The composite index encompasses both the intrinsic nature of growth (strength, volatility, and sources) and its social dimensions (health and educational outcomes). We thus aim to capture the multidimensional features of growth as illustrated in Figure 2.
So what’s new about the index, you might ask? Is it just a rehash of the well-known Human Development Index (HDI) developed by the UN (Klugman et al. 2011)? For our index, we go beyond the levels of incomes, and focus on the very nature of growth – its strength, stability, sectoral composition, etc. Arguably, since the HDI is income-based, one could reasonably say that it is actually the result of millennia of accumulated growth.
Our index thus has the advantage of allowing us to assess the quality of various episodes of growth both within and across countries.
This is particularly interesting in that it can more usefully inform policymakers so as to whether their growth strategy is yielding good results. Moreover, our index allows getting to the bottom of the matter, by singling out growth and social performance actually attributable to current or recent policymaking.
To build our index, we focus on developing countries. Due to data limitations, our index covers 93 developing countries in various stages of development over the period 1990 to 2011.
Our findings are four-fold.
First, the quality of growth has been improving over the past two decades.
Second, the least performing countries tend to catch up the best performers over time, though at a slow pace.
This is in line with the traditional convergence hypothesis found in the growth literature. In other words, once a country has reached a high quality of growth level it becomes increasingly difficult to keep on improving it—there are limits to the improvement of life expectancy, for instance. The inverse is true for countries at the bottom of the ladder.
Third, there are cross-country variations in income levels and regions (Figure 4).
Upper-middle income countries (UMIC) record the highest scores, followed by lower-middle income countries (LMIC) and low-income countries (LIC), respectively. Fragility is also a source of tougher structural impediments when it comes to achieving better quality of growth. Fragile countries significantly underperform the sample. From a regional perspective, Latin America stands as the best performer, followed by Central and Eastern Europe, Asia and Pacific, Middle East and North Africa, respectively. Sub-Saharan Africa countries rank at the bottom, though a handful of them, notably from Southern and Eastern Africa rose remarkably to the club of best performers.
To really have lasting improvements in social outcomes, the quality of growth needs to be sustained over a long period of time—30-40 years. Countries such as China and Malaysia have achieved this. While several African countries such as Tanzania and Zambia have achieved notable improvements in the quality of growth, they need to sustain this momentum over a long period of time.
Fourth, empirical investigations allow nailing down the main drivers of the quality of growth index.
It appears that devoting more public resources to social sectors helps improve the quality of growth. Sound institutions and macroeconomic policies are also found to be associated with good quality growth, so is political stability, which altogether create an enabling environment for achieving stable and broad-based growth, and for delivering good public services. Moreover, greater financial development, which eases access to credit, helps unleash the private sector’s potential for creating wealth and decent jobs, and hence improves the quality of growth. Finally, external conditions matter for raising the quality of growth index, especially foreign direct investment— by helping to close the domestic saving gap and by accelerating the transfer of technology and knowledge.
Concluding remarks
We do realise, of course, that while our quality of growth index is a positive step in contributing to the debate on why not all growth is created equal, there are additional avenues to improve it. Like all indices, it is only as good as the underlying data. The quality of social data is particularly weak and patchy. As a result, we were forced to make a number of interpolations and use five-year averages. The index could also be enhanced and include labour market aspects and measures of inequality.
And finally, a word of caution. Our index does not say anything about long-term sustainability. Simply put, it cannot say whether a country’s current policies—which may improve the quality of growth now – won’t lead to economic or environmental disaster in the long run. For instance, a country may have improved its quality of growth by rapidly depleting its natural resources or running up public debt.
Disclaimer: The authors are economists at the International Monetary Fund, Washington DC. The views expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the IMF or IMF policy.
References
Anand R, S Mishra, and J S Peiris (2013), “Inclusive Growth: Measurement and Determinants”, IMF Working paper No. 13/135.
Commission on Growth and Development (2008), Growth Report: Strategies for Sustained Growth and Inclusive Development (Washington: World Bank).
Dollar, D, T Kleineberg, and A Kraay (2013), “Growth is Still Good for the Poor,” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 6568 (Washington: World Bank).
Dollar, D and A Kraay (2002), “Growth is Good for the Poor,” Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 195–225.
Ianchovichina, E and S L Gable (2012), “What is Inclusive Growth?”, Chapter 8 in Arezki et al. (eds), Commodity Price Volatility and Inclusive Growth in Low-Income Countries, International Monetary Fund.
Klugman, J, F Rodriguez, and H J Choi (2011), “The HDI 2010: New Controversies, Old Critiques”, Human Development Research Paper 1. UNDP―HDRO, New York.
Author: Montfort Mlachila is an Advisor in the African Department of the IMF. René Tapsoba and Sampawende Tapsoba are Economists in the Fiscal Affairs Department of the IMF
Image: A worker dries coffee beans at the Santa Adelaida coffee cooperative in La Libertad, on the outskirts of San Salvador. REUTERS/Ulises Rodriguez
The greatest ongoing investigation in literary history has been caused
entirely by William Shakespeare’s thoughtlessness. He left no paper trail.
Not a single poem or letter or play
has ever been found in his own hand. We have just six shaky signatures.
His will mentions no books, plays or anything else to suggest the
balding Stratford businessman was also a writer.
His personality, love interests, movements are all a total mysery.
The documents relating
to his life are all of a legal nature. Nobody ever recognised
Shakespeare as a writer during his lifetime and when
he died, in 1616, no one seemed to notice. Not a single letter refers to the
great author’s passing at the time.
Now, a new book has fanned the flames of treason by saying that
Shakespeare of Stratford,
far from being the most colossal literary genius of all time,
was a provincial Midlands nobody who could barely write his name.
Shakespeare in Court by Alexander Waugh is written in a mock trial format.
It sifts the evidence and, without putting forward any
other candidate, asserts that there are plenty of reasons to think
Shakespeare was a front man or pseudonym for some highly educated,
well-travelled courtier, who preferred to keep
his identity secret in an age when pen-names were common.
Waugh and a prominent group of doubters called the Shakespeare
Authorship Coalition (SAC) felt sufficiently confident of their
ground that they took out a full-page advertisement in The
Times Literary Supplement, offering to donate £40,000 to the
Shakespeare Birthplace Trust if it could establish, in open debate, beyond
reasonable doubt, that William Shakespeare of Stratford was the author of the
Complete Works. The money was put up by an assortment of supporters,
including the actors Sir Derek Jacobi and Michael York. The Birthplace
Trust curtly declined.
“Can you believe it? A registered charity turned down the opportunity of £40,000
to defend the very basis on which they are founded!” exclaims the
irrepressible Waugh,
grandson of the novelist Evelyn Waugh and honorary president of SAC.
“We are now
considering a formal complaint to the Charities Commission and appealing to
anyone who would like to join in a class action suit against the Trust for all
the money they’ve taken under false pretences. I am publicly accusing them
of that and I am waiting for my writ. Where is it?”
It’s not in the post. The Birthplace Trust would greatly prefer it if the Coalition
would go away and boil its head. The Trust has stated its case for Shakespeare
repeatedly and at length, notably in an online Authorship Campaign
(featuring a battery of orthodox scholars) and in Shakespeare Bites Back,
published as a spoiler the day before the 2011 film Anonymous
came out. Starring Rhys Ifans, Anonymous
(the poster read “Was Shakespeare a fraud?”) dramatised the “Oxfordian”
claim that Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, was the
true author of the plays. Yet no matter how much the scholastic
Shakespeare establishment insists that the doubters are fruit loops,
flat-earthers or simply snobs, who can’t bear the idea that the world’s greatest
poet was a mere grammar school boy and not a glamorous aristo,
the case against Shakespeare is as vociferous today as at any time
since it first gained credence in the mid-19th century.
Apart from a sizeable community of dandruffy amateur
code-breakers and anagram-spotters looking for clues as to the
identity of the real author, the doubters’ camp can also boast some
world-class minds down the years, including Sigmund Freud,
Mark Twain, Henry James, Charles Dickens and historian Hugh Trevor-Roper,
who found the case for reasonable doubt about the author’s
identity “overwhelming” (though it should be pointed out that
Trevor-Roper also famously believed the forged Hitler diaries were genuine).
Every time a book asserts Shakespeare was the true author, another one of
apparently equal erudition comes out saying, “Where’s the evidence?”
Last year, Professor Stanley Wells published an e-book titled, Why
Shakespeare WAS Shakespeare. It didn’t do the trick with one
customer – Prince Philip. When the author asked him if he was a heretic,
the Prince is reported to have replied, “all the more so after reading
your book.” Prince Philip apparently thinks a Tudor diplomat named
Sir Henry Neville wrote at least some of the plays. But even the House
of Windsor is divided on this national debate: Prince Charles is president
of the Royal Shakespeare Company, which is in no mood to re-brand itself as The Royal Possibly-Not-Shakespeare Company. Indeed the RSC summarises without mercy on their website the doubters’ collective mental state: “ignorance; poor sense of logic; refusal, wilful or otherwise, to accept evidence; folly; the desire for publicity; and even (as in the sad case of Delia Bacon, who hoped to open Shakespeare’s grave in 1856) certifiable madness.”
A woman looks out a window as a procession marking the 450th anniversary of William Shakespeare's birth passes by in Stratford-upon-Avon, southern England April 26, 2014. SUZANNE PLUNKETT/REUTERS
But does it really matter who wrote these wonderful plays? According to one notable paid-up doubter, Derek Jacobi, “Yes, it does! The disclosure of the real author would enhance not only the historical significance but also the contemporary excitement of these treasures for both actors and spectators; and it shouldn’t be regarded as potential professional suicide, heresy or an actor’s silliness to come out and say so.”
Stanley Wells, in his Stratford office, sighs at having to repeat all the points he’s made over the years about Shakespeare’s identity. For him, there is no mystery: “Yes, there are gaps in the records, as there are for most non-aristocratic people. We do, however, have documentary records and there’s lots of posthumous evidence. There’s evidence in the First Folio, the memorial in the church here in Stratford, the poem by William Basse referring to him, all of it stating that Shakespeare of Stratford was a poet,” he says.
But if that’s the case what about the £40,000 mock trial – easy money, surely? “Public debates are an exercise of forensic skill rather than an intellectual scholarly exercise. So no, we are not going to debate or take their money. I would hope we have more dignity.”
What would settle this question for good? “I would love to find a contemporary document that said William Shakespeare was the dramatist of Stratford-upon-Avon written during his lifetime,” says Wells. “There’s lots and lots of unexamined legal records rotting away in the national archives; it is just possible something will one day turn up. That would shut the buggers up!”
The doubters, meanwhile, are busy writing and convening. Among them is the actor Mark Rylance, a trustee of the Shakespeare Authorship Trust (founded in 1922), which has just had a conference on the authorship question at the Globe Theatre. Indeed, heresy seems to be spreading. Brunel University now even has a course on the authorship and one survey shows that 17% of American literature professors think there is room for reasonable doubt about Shakespeare’s identity. Even in the States, you probably wouldn’t find 17% of biology professors doubting evolutionary theory.
The battle continues. Alexander Waugh and a phalanx of combative Shake-sceptics are already looking forward to hosing cold water over the 400th anniversary of the Bard’s death in 2016. “The Stratfordians have been trying to pretend we don’t exist for a long time, but now they’re running scared,” says Waugh. “As Mahatma Gandhi said, ‘First they ignore you, then they ridicule you, then they fight you, and then you win.’ We’ve got to the fight bit.”
Imrana, Oksana Makar. Jyoti Singh Pandey. Daisy Coleman. These names would probably mean nothing to most people. But the addition of one tiny bit of information is enough to evoke a sea of response among the listeners- they are the names of rape victims. Most people will be surged by feelings of sympathy and sometimes even disgust. On the other hand, the mentioning of names such as Albert Fish, Ted Bundy, Gary Heidnik, Carlton Gary and so on are likely to elicit feelings of outrage, anger, apathy and also a feeling of helplessness towards the entire situation. With several news of rape being reported and sensationalized by media around the globe, the question arises as to what is that one (or, in all probability more) factor/s that triggers rape. Over the years several people have developed an interest in the rapist rather than the rape victim. What exactly goes on inside the mind of a rapist? Why do they resort to committing such heinous acts?
Rape, is a “ is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that’s person’s consent.” The term is derived from the Latin word rapere which means to snatch or carry off. The derivative itself suggests that the term refers to a forceful act. Like most other things there are certain myths about rape. One of the widely held and believed myths is that women incite men to rape. However studies have proven likewise. Rape is the responsibility of the perpetrator. Myths exist not just about the victims but also about the perpetrator. For instance another commonly believed myths is that most rapists are non white and usually belong to the lower strata of society. One of the most asked and pondered upon question is why men (very often from upper class and who live normal and dignified lives) resort to the commitment of such abominable acts.
There are several theories that are attributed to cite reasons for committing a rape. Broadly speaking they can be divided into social and biological factors. Nicholas Groth, author of “Men who Rape” has identified several types of rapists. For instance one category is the Anger rapist- In this an act of rape is committed under an extreme fit of anger primarily to humiliate and undermine their victim through rape. They use rape as a sexual tool to ventilate their anger. The action of rape is caused by conscious anger and rage of the perpetrator. Another kind of rapist can be the power rapist- In this the act of rape is carried out by the offender to establish their power, supremacy, dominance and authority over the helpless victim. Such rapists conduce in fantasies in regard to sexual conquests and rapes. They dwell on the thought that with the passage of time the victim will eventually start enjoying the rape. Power rapists are those who are likely to be serial offenders of rape. Studies have shown that majority of the rapists in The United States of America are power rapists. A third category of rapists can be sadistic rapists- As the name itself suggests sadistic rapists are those who thrive upon and derive a sense of enjoyment by inflicting pain on the victim. Causing pain to the victim evokes sexual excitement in the offender. Watching the pain, agony and suffering of the victim is an erotic experience for the rapist. Such rapists are considered to be the most dangerous as their sexual exploits often leads to the death of the victim. Serial rapist and psychopath Ted Bundy falls into this category of rapists. The fourth kinds of rapists are Date rapists- They are those who rape close acquaintances. Such rapists tend to be inordinately aggressive, possessive and do not respect personal distance. It is easier for date rapists to commit their act as the victims are known to them and are trusted more easily. Finally in war rapes-Where soldiers and other combatants rape women of the enemy country. Rape is often used as a weapon in war to establish to establish male supremacy and also to degrade the moral values and ethics of the enemy country by toying with the chastity of women.
Apart from these social and behavioral patterns, biology also plays a pivotal role in causing certain behavior that induces a person to rape. For instance, in one case a 40 year old man who led an otherwise normal life abruptly began leaning towards pedophilia. He also complained of severe headache that occurred frequently. An examination of his brain showed the presence of an egg sized tumor located in the right lobe of the orbifrontal context which is linked to judgments. Thus very often the behavior of a rapist is attributed to certain biological factors.
Now turning to a more interesting aspect- are there any significant behavioral patterns that can be associated with a rapist? The general population usually assumes that acts of rape are carried out by non whites, those who are less educated and those who belong at the bottom of the social ladder. For instance on hearing the word child molester the image that pops up in the minds of most people are that of a “dirty old man” who usually linger in the park luring children away with candy. Contrary to these vivid ye false pictures that is painted by society it is difficult to label a person as a sexual offender or a rapist merely by his looks. Most serial rapists are average looking men sometimes having a white collar occupation. They can be anyone ranging from ones next door neighbor to a stranger with whom one has had pleasant conversations with. Most rapists are educated giving them more reasoning and analytic power. They usually also have very good communication skills and can interact with women freely. The earlier held notion that rapists tend to be big bulky men who towers over the average population and usually spots an impressive beard and mustache cannot be applicable to all. Several people who fit into this category are mild and gentle by nature. Take the example of Ted Bundy the world’s most notorious serial rapist and killer. He was an average, good looking, charming young man who preyed upon women by raping them before killing them. He does not fit into any of the stereotypes that people usually hold for rapists or psychopaths. Therefore it is critical note that there is no physical appearance which we can label or stigmatize a person as a sexual offender or criminal. However, there are certain traits that is usually predominant in people who commit sexual offenses. For instance such people are prone to use violence for solving any problem. They tend to be very demanding and aggressive in intimate relations. Their charms are very often superficial rather than genuine.
When it comes to punishing a rapist society comes up with the most graphic ways to condemn a rapist. However studies have shown that this does not often help. Locking up a rapist in prison will ensure that no acts will be committed by him during that particular time but after his release he will might continue committing the same act. It is essential that therapy must be provided for such people and help them adjust to society. The society too plays a pivotal role in changing the behavior of a rapist, Rather than condemning and stigmatizing them society must take on a more proactive role.
Ever contemplated selling an organ on the black market just to make rent? Depending on what you're selling, you could make as much as US$650,000 (£425,000), according to the infographic below, created by Buddy Loans.
Unfortunately, that's the market price for your heart, which, well, you kind of need. But selling off a kidney would still raise a decent US$160,000 (£105,000).
If surgery isn't your thing, you could always look into harvesting the electricity from your bodily functions and daily movements, or even sell storage in your impressive brain, as the infographic explains.
However, while the information is fascinating, we should let you know that some of these values may be slightly higher than the reality of a post-global-financial-crisis black market.
A few years ago German filmmaker and journalist, Peter Scharf, travelled around Europe and made a documentary on the true cost of the human body. As our editorBec Crew wrote last year:
"Think your kidney is worth more than a French bulldog? Think again. While filming, Scharf was able to locate three men in a Moldavian village who sold their kidneys and got just $2,292 each. Yikes. Hopefully they didn’t find out that if a person wants to receive an illegally transplanted organ, they’re going to have to pay anywhere between $80,000 and $200,000 for the privilege. (And they’d better hope their body doesn’t reject their new kidney afterwards, because no refunds!)"
So get fascinated by the information below, but make sure you take it with a grain of salt before you get that ice-filled bathtub ready.
Soft drinks have never been the most nutritious dietary choice, but new research suggests that an unnecessary colouring ingredient may pose a cancer risk, even to people who consume an average amount of soda.
The chemical in question is a byproduct of caramel colour, a common ingredient that gives colas, root beers and iced teas their dark hue. During production of caramel colour type III and IV, a chemical known as 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) can be produced.
And here's where the problem lies, because 4-MEI has been classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, as a result of "equivocal evidence of carcinogenic activity in female rats", but no human studies.
Of course, that doesn't mean the chemical definitely causes cancer, but the evidence was strong enough that, in 2011, California ordered that all drinks containing more than a safe level of 4-MEI, set as 29 μg/day, carry a warning label. The safe level of a chemical is determined by the amount that would cause less than one cancer case per 100,000 people exposed to it.
Now a team of researchers, led by the John Hopkins University Centre for a Liveable Future in the US, has assessed how much soft drink the average American drinks, and compared this to the levels of 4-MEI in cans of drink to assess whether the chemical really poses a risk to the average American consumer.
Publishing in PLOS ONE, they found that between 44 and 58 percent of people over the age of six in the US drink at least one can of soft drink every day on average. And given this rate of 'average consumption', they conclude that average soda drinkers could potentially be exposed to unsafe levels of 4-MEI over a lifetime.
"Soft drink consumers are being exposed to an avoidable and unnecessary cancer risk from an ingredient that is being added to these beverages simply for aesthetic purposes," said Keeve Nachman, senior author of the study, in a press release. "This unnecessary exposure poses a threat to public health and raises questions about the continued use of caramel colouring in soda."
Their research built on a previous study they'd done with Consumer Reports in 2013 and 2014. Over those two years, the team analysed 110 soft drinks bought in either California (where a warning label must be used above certain 4-MEI levels) or New York.
Altogether they looked at 11 different types of soft drinks, all in can form, except for Goya Malta, a carbonated and, according to the brand's website, "nutritious", malt drink, which is only sold in glass bottles.
The team admits that it didn't look at enough soft drink samples to make any recommendations about which particular brands of soft drink have lower levels than others (you can see the full table in their paper, but keep in mind that these results definitely need to be replicated), but it did show that 4-MEI levels can vary greatly from can to can, even in the same type of soft drink.
"For example, for diet colas, certain samples had higher or more variable levels of the compound, while other samples had very low concentrations," said Tyler Smith, another lead researcher, in the release.
The team has now submitted their results to the US Food and Drug Administration, in the hopes it will set some national limits for how much 4-MEI can be present in drinks.
"This new analysis underscores our belief that people consume significant amounts of soda that unnecessarily elevate their risk of cancer over the course of a lifetime," said Urvashi Rangan, the executive director for Consumer Reports' Food Safety and Sustainability Centre, in a press release. "We believe beverage makers and the government should take the steps needed to protect public health."
Afghanistan, a country that is primarily located at the centre of Asia is also considered as one of the most dangerous countries of the world after decades of wars that have ravaged this once-beautiful country. It is also one of the countries of the world where a large number of women burn themselves to death. In 2010 there were about 22,000 burn cases that were recorded in the hospitals acrossAfghanistanaccording to Ms. Suray Dalil, the acting minister for health ofAfghanistan. Among them, 2,000 people were admitted to the hospitals as in patients - thereby pointing to the serious nature of the injuries. Naming several top notch hospitals in the Capital Kabul and Herat, Ms Dalil said that about 234 people had died there in the year 2010. The beginning of 2011 was welcomed inAfghanistanby 850 patients being treated for burns in the first 5 months.
The number of women who resort to self immolation is shockingly high. Various cases are brought to the hospitals where women are severely burnt. Until recently, majority of such cases were heard in the western Heart province near the border with Iran. However this issue is increasingly becoming national, than a regional one. Some women are treated in the hospital for burnt feet, inflicted by spilling hot water on them. Some others burn themselves by lighting an oil lamp, and yet another burnt herself by falling against a hot water heater. Now the crucial question which arises is why such hideous acts are committed. These acts are committed by women who are the victims of domestic violence and other forms of abuse. The outcomes of these acts are often fatal.
What is ironical, is that majority of the population of Afghanistan are followers of Islam. The Islamic religion preaches that all males and females are to be treated alike in all the spheres of life. About 1400 years ago Islam preached that women too, like men must be given rights to vote and are all equal before god. Women too must be given various rights such as the right to inheritance, right to work and even right to choose their own life partners. However despite what their religion preaches the women of Afghanistan have not been able to enjoy these rights for centuries now. Afghanistan witnessed the rule of the Taliban for a brief period between 1996 and 2001. The condition of the women during that time was deplorable. They were denied the basic rights and ill treated to a very large extent. They were forbidden to work or even leave their houses without a male be it a brother or husband. They were ordered to cover themselves from head to toe including their eyes. They were even forbiddened from consulting male doctors during times of illnesses. Women who held prestigious positions and were doctors or teachers had to soon give up their professions and found themselves on the streets either as beggars or some even as prostitutes in order to feed their families. After the fall of The Taliban rule in Afghanistan many people have agreed that the condition of the country especially in relation to the condition of women has improved. Women have been allowed to go back to work and they are no longer forced to wear the burqua to cover their body. However despite all these changes which seem to have been made for the better still many challenges remain whose solutions are yet to be found. Women are still being denied certain rights in the rural areas where the male members do not allow their wives, sisters and mothers to take part in the public life. They are still being forced into marriages. In many parts of the country, girls are still being denied of education and many schools for girls have been burnt down. Cases are known where girls have been poisoned to death for daring to go to school. Many a time young girls who still adolescents or teenagers are married to men who are about 40. Even such young girls are not spared from sinister remarks that are thrown at them and are beaten ruthlessly by their husbands for no fault of theirs. Men are who are addictive to drugs often beat their wives because they do not have enough money to buy heroin. It seems that most men find their wives only as a tool for ventilating their anger. Women are invariably blamed by their husbands when things go wrong – when the crops fail, when a child falls ill, women are invariably made the scapegoats and are punished often ferociously. All these factors have forced many women to end their repressed life by setting themselves on fire.
A recent study has shown that in most of the cases women burn themselves as a result of domestic violence or because they have voiced their thoughts that challenge the authority of men and have been punished severely. The women who survive after trying to kill themselves in the scorching flames state that they did not intentionally try to kill themselves. Most of them state that the accident occurred when they were cooking. They are very often threatened by the family members to not say anything to the outside world that would put their family name to disgrace. In such cases the only way that a woman can survive without telling anyone her miseries is to not survive at all. The main problem that seems to arise is that the law of Islam is left to be interpreted by the people. Most of the women are staunch believers and followers of Islam but they end up as the ultimate victim of the very same religion. It is highly ironical that a religion that preaches equality and brotherhood and equal respect to men and women is interpreted by the people in the very opposite sense.
However it is sad and unfortunate to see that it is not only Afghanistan which alone witnesses abuse on women and make them seem trifle. These acts of crime happen much closer home too. For instance, Punjab, which is one of the richest states in India, witnessed a horrible and heart wrenching abuse on a woman named Mukhtaran Mai in the year 2002. In the village of Meerwala the Panchayat falsely accused her 12 year old brother having an affair with a woman who belonged to a higher cast. In order to punish him the elders of the village ordered the accused sister Mukhtaran to be raped. As 100 people watched this horrific scene where four men dragged her screaming through a cotton field. They finally pushed her into a mud walled house and assaulted her for more than an hour- all for mo fault of hers. Jharkand, another state in the Indian subcontinent witnessed the torture of Ramani Devi after being branded a witch by the so called “witch doctors”. In Ghana when crops fail or children die of mysterious illness the people suspect witchcraft and as a result many women have lost their lives owing to false beliefs.
In Guatemala, a country in Central America, men can escape rape charges if he marries his victim if she is above the age of 12. A wife who is beaten by her husband can prosecute against him only if the wounds that are caused by the beating are visible for more than ten days. In the same country, girls and women have been found with insults carved into their flesh and bodies of young girls and women have been found badly mutilated, raped murdered beheaded and dumped on the roadside. In Gujranwala, which is about 135 km from Islamabad, mob threw petrol bombs at women runners who were participating in a marathon which was taking place because they were running along with men.
Apart from these countries a few well developed and industrialized nations are also witnessing abuses and torture that women have to bear. For example- The fundamental Christians in USA, Muslims in the UK and Europe, certain Ultra-orthodox Jews in Israel, and Catholics in Ireland also ill treat women in various ways.
As Khaled Hosseni has rightly mentioned in his highly acclaimed novel “ A Thousand Splendid Suns”- “ Like the needle of a compass always points towards the North, a man’s accusing finger always points towards a woman.” Hosseni's prophetic words ring true not only in Afghanistan but in several other countries as well.
