New automated imaging to greatly speed whole-brain mapping efforts

3-D rendering of coronal section of a mouse brain imaged with STP tomography at 20x at a resolution of half a micron. GFP-expressing pyramidal neurons in hippocampus and cortex are targeted.

A new technology developed by neuroscientists at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) transforms the way highly detailed anatomical images can be made of whole brains. Until now, means of obtaining such images – used in cutting-edge projects to map the mammalian brain -- have been painstakingly slow and available only to a handful of highly specialized research teams.

By automating and standardizing the process in which brain samples are divided into sections and then imaged sequentially at precise spatial orientations in two-photon microscopes, the team, led by Assoc. Prof. Pavel Osten and consisting of scientists from his CSHL lab and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has opened the door to making whole-brain mapping routine.

Specifically, says Osten, "the new technology should greatly facilitate the systematic study of neuroanatomy in mouse models of human brain disorders such as schizophrenia and autism."

The new technology, developed in concert with TissueVision of Cambridge, Mass. and reported on in a paper appearing online Jan. 15 in Nature Methods, is called Serial Two-Photon Tomography, or STP tomography. Tomography refers to any process (including the familiar CAT and PET scans used in medical diagnostics) that images an object section by section, by shooting penetrating waves through it. Computers powered by mathematical formulae reassemble the results to produce a three-dimensional rendering. Two-photon imaging is a type used in biology laboratories, particularly in conjunction with fluorescent biomarkers, which can be mobilized to illuminate specific cell types or other anatomical features. The two-photon method allows deeper optical penetration into the tissue being sampled than conventional confocal microscopy.

As Osten explains, STP tomography achieves high-throughput fluorescence imaging of whole mouse brains via robotic integration of the two fundamental steps -- tissue sectioning and fluorescence imaging. In their paper, his team reports on the results of several mouse-brain imaging experiments, which indicate the uses and sensitivity of the new tool. They conclude that it is sufficiently mature to be used in whole-brain mapping efforts such as the ongoing Allen Mouse Brain Atlas project.

One set of experiments tested the technology at different levels of resolution. At 10x magnification of brain tissue samples, they performed fast imaging "at a resolution sufficient to visualize the distribution and morphology of green-fluorescent protein-labeled neurons, including their dendrites and axons," Osten reports.

A full set of data, including final images, could be obtained by the team in 6.5 to 8.5 hours per brain, depending on the resolution. These sets each were comprised of 260 top-to-bottom, or coronal, slices of mouse brain tissue, which were assembled by computer into three-dimensional renderings themselves capable of a wide range of "warping," i.e., artificial manipulation, to reveal hidden structures and features.

"The technology is a practical one that can be used for scanning at various levels of resolution, ranging from 1 to 2 microns to less than a micron," Osten says. Scans at the highest resolution level take about 24 hours to collect. This makes possible an impressive saving of time, Osten says, compared to methods that are now in use. Using these, it would take an experienced technician about a week to collect a set of whole-brain images at high resolution, he noted.

"What is most exciting about this tool is its application in the study of mouse models of human illness, which we are already doing in my lab," Osten says. "We are focusing on making comparisons between different mouse models of schizophrenia and autism. Many susceptibility genes have been identified in both disorders – one recent estimate by Dr. Mike Wigler's team here at CSHL put the figure at over 250 for autism spectrum disorders, for instance. Dr. Alea Mills at CSHL has published a mouse model of one genetic aberration in autism – a region on chromosome 16 – and soon we will have tens of models, each showing a different aberration.

"We will want to compare these mice, and that is essentially why we designed STP tomography – to automate and standardize the process of collecting whole-brain images in which different cell-types or circuit tracings have been performed. This makes possible comparisons across different mouse models in an unbiased fashion."

More information: "Serial two-photon tomography: an automated method for mouse brain imaging," Nature Methods on January 15, 2012. 

Provided by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

"New automated imaging to greatly speed whole-brain mapping efforts." January 15th, 2012. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2012-01-cshl-team-automated-imaging-greatly.html

 

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Robert Karl Stonjek

டிஸ்லெக்சியா

 

சென்னைக்கு அருகில் இருக்கும் ஆவடியில் நந்தகுமாரின் இளமைப்பிராயம் கழிந்தது. பண்ணிரண்டு வயது. ஆறாம் வகுப்போடு படிப்பை நிறுத்திக் கொண்டார். பள்ளிக்குச் செல்வது வேப்பங்காயாய் கசந்தது. கற்கும் பாடங்கள் நினைவில் நிற்பதில்லை. கற்றல் குறைபாடு அவருக்கு தீராதப் பிரச்சினையாக இருந்தது. ஆங்கிலத்தில் டிஸ்லெக்சியா (Dyslexia) என்று அழைக்கப்படும் இந்த உளவியல் பிரச்சினை கற்றல் தொடர்பானது. பள்ளிக்குச் செல்வதை நிறுத்தும் மாணவர்கள் வழக்கமாக நம்மூரில் என்னவெல்லாம் செய்வார்களோ, அதையே தான் நந்தாவும் செய்தார். லாட்டரி டிக்கெட் விற்றார். வீடியோ கடையில் எடுபிடியாக வேலை பார்த்தார். மெக்கானிக் ஷெட்டில் கையில் க்ரீஸ் அழுக்கோடு நேரம் காலம் பார்க்காமல் உழைக்க வேண்டியிருந்தது. ஜெராக்ஸ் கடையில் சில காலம். இப்படியாக எதிர்காலம் குறித்த எந்த தெளிவான முடிவும் அவரிடம் இல்லாமல் வாழ்க்கை சக்கரம் சுற்றிக் கொண்டிருந்தது. பிரச்சினை நந்தகுமாரோடு முடிந்துவிட்டிருந்தால் தேவலை. நந்தகுமாருக்கு இரண்டு தங்கைகள், ஒரு தம்பி. முன் ஏர் எப்படிப் போகுமோ, அப்படித்தான் பின் ஏரும் போகும் என்பது ஊர்களில் பேசப்படும் சொலவடை. நந்தகுமாரைப் பின்பற்றி அவரது தங்கைகளும், தம்பியும் மிகச்சரியாக, சொல்லி வைத்தாற்போல் ஆறாம் வகுப்போடு பள்ளியை ஏறக்கட்டினார்கள். ஒரு குடும்பத்தின் நான்கு வாரிசுகளுமே கல்வியை பாதியில் விட்டால், சமூகம் அந்தக் குடும்பத்தை எப்படிப் பார்க்கும்? இத்தனைக்கும் பள்ளிக்கு குழந்தைகளை அனுப்ப முடியாத அளவுக்கு வறுமையெல்லாம் அக்குடும்பத்தில் இல்லை. தெருப்பிள்ளைகள் இவர்களோடு விளையாட அனுமதிக்கப்படவில்லை. “அந்தப் பசங்க மக்குப்பசங்க. அவங்களோட சேர்ந்தா நீங்களும் மக்காயிடுவீங்க!” உற்றாரும், உறவினரும் கேலியாகவும், கிண்டலாகவும் நால்வரையும் பார்த்தார்கள். புத்தருக்கு ஞானம் கிடைக்க போதிமரம் கிடைத்தது. போதிமரத்தடியில் உட்காராமலேயே திடீரென ஒருநாள் புத்தர் ஆனார் நந்தகுமார். பள்ளிக்குப் போகாமலேயே பிரைவேட்டாக எட்டாம் வகுப்பு தேர்வு எழுதினால் என்ன? நண்பர் ஒருவர் அதுபோல எழுதலாம் என்று ஆலோசனை சொல்ல எட்டாம் வகுப்பு தேர்வை வெற்றிகரமாக முடித்தார் நந்தா. இந்த வெற்றி தந்த பெருமிதம் பத்தாம் வகுப்புத் தேர்வையும் எழுதவைத்தது. இதுவும் பாஸ். “அடடே. எல்லாமே ஈஸியா இருக்கே? பள்ளியிலேயே சேர்ந்து படிக்கலாம் போலிருக்கே?” என்று எண்ணினார் நந்தா. எட்டாம் வகுப்பும், பத்தாம் வகுப்பும் பிரைவேட்டாக எழுதிய அவரை +1 வகுப்பில் சேர்க்க பள்ளிகள் மறுத்தன. போராடிப் பார்த்தார். முடியவில்லை. மனந்தளராத விக்கிரமாதித்தனைப் போல +2 தேர்வையும் பிரைவேட்டாகவே எழுதி வென்றார் நந்தா. இப்போது கல்லூரியில் சேர்ந்து பயிலும் ஆசை நந்தாவுக்குள் முளைவிட்டிருந்தது. பள்ளியில் படிக்காமல் எட்டு, பத்து, பண்ணிரெண்டு என்று எல்லா வகுப்புகளையுமே பிரைவேட்டாக தேறியிருந்த நந்தாவை சேர்த்துக்கொள்ள கல்லூரிகளுக்கு மனமில்லை. கல்லூரிதோறும் கால்கடுக்க ஏறி, இறங்கி கடைசியாக வியாசர்பாடி அம்பேத்கர் கலைக்கல்லூரியில் கிடைத்த ஆங்கிலம் இளங்கலை படிப்பை படிக்க ஆரம்பித்தார் நந்தா. அம்பேத்கர் கல்லூரியில் இளங்கலை முடிந்ததும் சென்னை மாநிலக்கல்லூரியில் அதே ஆங்கில இலக்கியத்தை முதுகலையாக கற்றுத் தேர்ந்தார். கல்லூரியில் படிக்கும்போது கல்வி தவிர்த்து, என்.சி.சி. போன்ற விஷயங்களில் அவருக்கு ஆர்வம் அதிகமாக இருந்தது. முதுகலைப்பட்டம் பெற்ற பிறகும் ‘என்னவாக ஆகப்போகிறோம்?’ என்று எந்த முன்முடிவும் நந்தாவிடம் இல்லை. என்.சி.சி.யில் இருந்ததால் இராணுவம் தொடர்பான பணி எதிலாவது சேரலாம் என்று நினைத்தார். சென்னையில் இராணுவ அதிகாரிகளை உருவாக்கும் ஆபிஸர்ஸ் டிரைனிங் அகாடமி (OTA)-யில் சேர்ந்தார். இடையில் ஒரு விபத்து ஏற்பட, அந்தப் படிப்பையும் பாதியில் விட வேண்டியதாயிற்று. அப்போதுதான் சிவில் சர்வீஸ் தேர்வுகள் குறித்து அறிந்தார். அதுவரை ஐ.ஏ.எஸ், ஐ.பி.எஸ் என்றால் பட்டப்படிப்பு போல மூன்று வருடங்கள் படிக்க வேண்டும் போலிருக்கிறது என்று எல்லோரையும் போல நந்தாவும் நினைத்திருந்தார். சிவில் சர்வீஸுக்கு தேர்ந்தெடுக்கப்பட்ட ஒரு போட்டித்தேர்வு போதுமானது என்ற விஷயமே நந்தாவை மிகவும் கவர்ந்தது. இன்று நந்தகுமார், ஐ.ஆர்.எஸ், சென்னையில் வருமானத்துறை அலுவலகத்தில் துணை ஆணையளராகப் பணிபுரிகிறார். ஒரு காலத்தில் பள்ளிகளும், கல்லூரிகளும் சேர்க்கத் தயங்கிய மாணவர் இன்று சிவில் சர்வீஸ் தேர்வு எழுதி, நாட்டை நிர்வகிக்கும் முக்கியப் பொறுப்பு வகிக்கிறார். முப்பத்து மூன்று வயதான நந்தகுமாரை சென்னையில் இருக்கும் அவரது இல்லத்தில் சந்தித்தோம். “எனக்கே எல்லாமே ஆச்சரியமா தாங்க இருக்கு. திடீருன்னு மறுபடியும் படிக்கணும்னு ஆர்வம் வந்தது. விடாமுயற்சியோடு, கடுமையாகப் படித்தேன்னு எல்லாம் சொல்லமுடியாது. சின்சியரா படிச்சேன். அவ்ளோதான்” என்று அளவாகப் புன்னகைக்கிறார். “கல்வி மிக மிக முக்கியமானதுங்க. ஆனா நம்மோட கல்விமுறையிலே எனக்கு கொஞ்சம் அதிருப்தி இருக்கு. நம்ம கல்விமுறை படிப்பாளிகளை உருவாக்குதே தவிர, அறிவாளிகளை உருவாக்குவதாக தெரியவில்லை. மாணவர்கள் கல்வி என்றால் கசப்பானது என்று நினைக்காமல் ஆர்வத்தோடு பள்ளிக்கு வரும் வகையில் நம்ம கல்விமுறையை மாற்றணும். கொடுமை பாருங்க. நான் சிவில் சர்வீஸ் எக்ஸாமுக்கு தயாராகும்போது படிச்சதெல்லாம் ஏற்கனவே பள்ளியில் படிச்சதா தானிருக்கு. திரும்ப திரும்ப ஒரே விஷயத்தை வேறு வேறு வடிவங்களில் படிச்சிக்கிட்டே இருக்க வேண்டியிருக்கு. ஒருவன் வாழ்க்கையை பயமின்றி எதிர்கொள்ளும் வகையில் அந்தந்த வயதுக்கு தேவையான வாழ்க்கைக்கல்வி இன்றைய சூழலில் அவசியம்! அப்புறம், சிவில்சர்வீஸ் எக்ஸாம்னாலே எல்லோரும் ஏதோ பெரிய பட்டப்படிப்பு மாதிரி பயப்படுறாங்க. இது ஒரு போட்டித்தேர்வு, பட்டப்படிப்பு அல்ல. பயமில்லாம நிறைய பேர் இந்த தேர்வுகளை எழுதணும். நம்ம இளைய தலைமுறை எதிர்ப்பார்க்கிற அட்வெஞ்சர் கேரியரா நிச்சயமா சிவில் சர்வீஸ் அமையும். ஆறாவது ஊதியப்பரிந்துரைக் குழுவின் பரிந்துரைகள் அமலுக்கு வந்த்துக்கு அப்புறமா நல்ல சம்பளமும் கிடைக்குதுங்க!” என்கிறார். கற்றல் தொடர்பான டிஸ்லெக்சியா பிரச்சினையை கொஞ்சம் கொஞ்சமாக கிட்டத்தட்ட வென்றுவிட்டேன் என்றும் நம்பிக்கையோடு சொல்கிறார். “அதிருக்கட்டும் சார், உங்களைப் பார்த்து படிப்பை பாதியில் விட்ட உங்க தங்கைகள், தம்பி என்ன ஆனாங்க?” என்று கேட்டால், வெடிச்சிரிப்பு சிரிக்கிறார். “சொன்னா நிச்சயமா நம்பமாட்டீங்க. நான் மறுபடியும் படிக்க ஆரம்பிச்சதும் ‘அண்ணன் காட்டிய வழியம்மா’ன்னு அவங்களும் என்னை பின் தொடர்ந்து படிக்க ஆரம்பிச்சாங்க. இன்னைக்கு மூணு பேருமே காலேஜ் லெக்சரர்களாக வேலை பார்க்குறாங்கன்னா உங்களால நம்ப முடியுதா?” படிப்பை பாதியில் நாலுபேரும் அடுத்தடுத்து விட்டதை கூட நம்பிவிடலாம். மீண்டும் தன்னெழுச்சியாக படித்து நல்ல நிலைக்கு சொல்லிவைத்தாற்போல நான்கு பேருமே உயர்ந்திருப்பது என்பது கொஞ்சம் சினிமாத்தனமாக தெரிந்தாலும், நந்தகுமாரின் குடும்பத்தில் சாத்தியமாகியிருக்கிறது. ஒரு காலத்தில் கல்வி அடிப்படையில் கேலிக்கும், கிண்டலுக்கும் ஆளான குடும்பம் இன்று, அதே கல்வியாலேயே தலைநிமிர்ந்து வாழ்வது மகிழ்ச்சியான விஷயம்தான் இல்லையா? டிஸ்லெக்சியா! அமீர்கானின் ‘தாரே ஜமீன் பர்’ படம் வெளியானதற்குப் பிறகு இந்த குறைபாடு குறித்த விவாதங்கள் அதிகளவில் எழுந்த்து. கற்றல் குறைபாடு இருப்பவர்களும் சராசரியானவர்களே. ஆனால் அவர்களிடம் வாசிப்புத்திறன் குறைவாக காணப்படும். கவனம் பிறழ்வது, எழுத்துத்திறன் குறைவது, கணிதப்பாடத்தை புரிந்துகொள்ள முடியாமை ஆகியவை டிஸ்லெக்சியாவின் பாதிப்புகள். எழுத்துக்களையும், அதற்கான உச்சரிப்புகளையும் அவ்வப்போது மறந்துவிடுவதாலேயே இந்தப் பாதிப்பு ஏற்படுகிறது. இந்த கற்றல் குறைபாடுக்கும், அறிவுவளர்ச்சிக்கும் எந்த சம்பந்தமுமில்லை. சிறுவயதில் டிஸ்லெக்சியாவால் பாதிக்கப்பட்டவர்கள் பலரும் சமூகத்தின் உயர்ந்த நிலைகளுக்கு உயர்ந்திருக்கிறார்கள். வின்ஸ்டன் சர்ச்சில், வால்ட் டிஸ்னி போன்றவர்களுக்கும் சிறுவயதில் இக்குறைபாடு இருந்திருக்கிறது. இக்குறைபாடுக்கு காரணமான மூளைதிசுக்களை முற்றிலுமாக சரிசெய்ய முடியாது என்றாலும், மனநல மருத்துவரின் ஆலோசனைகளோடு தகுந்த மாற்றுச் சிகிச்சைகளின் மூலமாக குறைபாட்டினை போக்க முடியும். (நன்றி : புதிய தலைமுறை - எழுதியவர் யுவகிருஷ்ணா ) சாயிபாபா

Shirdi Ke Sai Baba.avi

What Can Be Done to Slow Climate Change?

Upgrade Brick Kilns: Traditional brick kilns, which emit large amounts of black carbon, are still common in some parts of the world, particularly Asia. Shindell's team found that replacing them with cleaner and more fuel efficient technologies, such as vertical shaft or Hoffman kilns, could reduce global black carbon emissions by approximately four percent. (Credit: The University of York/Kevin Hicks)                                        Science Daily  — A new study led by a NASA scientist highlights 14 key air pollution control measures that, if implemented, could slow the pace of global warming, improve health and boost agricultural production.

"We've shown that implementing specific practical emissions reductions chosen to maximize climate benefits would also have important 'win-win' benefits for human health and agriculture," said Shindell.The research, led by Drew Shindell of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) in New York City, finds that focusing on these measures could slow mean global warming 0.9 ºF (0.5ºC) by 2050, increase global crop yields by up to 135 million metric tons per season and prevent hundreds of thousands of premature deaths each year. While all regions of the world would benefit, countries in Asia and the Middle East would see the biggest health and agricultural gains from emissions reductions.

The study was recently published in the journal Science.

Shindell and an international team considered about 400 control measures based on technologies evaluated by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Laxenburg, Austria. The new study focused on 14 measures with the greatest climate benefit. All 14 would curb the release of either black carbon or methane, pollutants that exacerbate climate change and damage human or plant health either directly or by leading to ozone formation.

Black carbon, a product of burning fossil fuels or biomass such as wood or dung, can worsen a number of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The small particles also absorb radiation from the sun causing the atmosphere to warm and rainfall patterns to shift. In addition, they darken ice and snow, reducing their reflectivity and hastening global warming.

Methane, a colorless and flammable substance that is a major constituent of natural gas, is both a potent greenhouse gas and an important precursor to ground-level ozone. Ozone, a key component of smog and also a greenhouse gas, damages crops and human health.

While carbon dioxide is the primary driver of global warming over the long term, limiting black carbon and methane are complementary actions that would have a more immediate impact because these two pollutants circulate out of the atmosphere more quickly.

Shindell and his team concluded that these control measures would provide the greatest protection against global warming to Russia, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, countries with large areas of snow or ice cover. Iran, Pakistan and Jordan would experience the most improvement in agricultural production. Southern Asia and the Sahel region of Africa would see the most beneficial changes to precipitation patterns.

The south Asian countries of India, Bangladesh and Nepal would see the biggest reductions in premature deaths. The study estimates that globally between 700,000 and 4.7 million premature deaths could be prevented each year.

Black carbon and methane have many sources. Reducing emissions would require that societies make multiple infrastructure upgrades. For methane, the key strategies the scientists considered were capturing gas escaping from coal mines and oil and natural gas facilities, as well as reducing leakage from long-distance pipelines, preventing emissions from city landfills, updating wastewater treatment plants, aerating rice paddies more, and limiting emissions from manure on farms.

For black carbon, the strategies analyzed include installing filters in diesel vehicles, keeping high-emitting vehicles off the road, upgrading cooking stoves and boilers to cleaner burning types, installing more efficient kilns for brick production, upgrading coke ovens and banning agricultural burning.

The scientists used computer models developed at GISS and the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Hamburg, Germany, to model the impact of emissions reductions. The models showed widespread benefits from the methane reduction because it is evenly distributed throughout the atmosphere. Black carbon falls out of the atmosphere after a few days so the benefits are stronger in certain regions, especially ones with large amounts of snow and ice.

"Protecting public health and food supplies may take precedence over avoiding climate change in most countries, but knowing that these measures also mitigate climate change may help motivate policies to put them into practice," Shindell said. The new study builds on a United Nations Environment Program/World Meteorological Organization report, also led by Shindell, published last year.

"The scientific case for fast action on these so-called 'short-lived climate forcers' has been steadily built over more than a decade, and this study provides further focused and compelling analysis of the likely benefits at the national and regional level," said United Nations Environment Program Executive Director Achim Steiner.

Love At First Sight

“When the muni looked at Rama with His brothers, his eyes welled up with tears, his body became thrilled with excitement, and his mind became so enchanted by the beauty.” (Janaki Mangala, 18) rāmahiṃ bhāinha sahita jabahiṃ muni joheu | naina nīra tana pulaka rūpa mana moheu || A painting’s beauty is measured by the reaction it incites in those who look at it. This makes sense after all, for if someone tells us that something is beautiful and we don’t feel anything positive when looking at it, that opinion is meaningless to us. The more natural the emotion and the more quickly it arrives, the greater the quality of goodness in the target object. Love at first sight is indicated by the emotion that emerges at the first glance. For a sage a long time ago his devotion to the Supreme Lord was revealed by the reactions he felt throughout his body upon first sight of that worshipable object in the form of a small child accompanied by His three younger brothers. The signs of devotion and the worthiness of worship of that honorable figure were both shown during that one incident. What are some of the emotions that a beautiful object elicits? Excitement is surely one of them. “Look at what I’m seeing. I can’t take my eyes off of this. I don’t want to ever not be able to see this again.” In modern times a person’s excitement over an image can be seen through their buying of a painting or storing of a photograph on their computer or handheld electronic device. Along with excitement, there could be the enchantment of the mind. In Sanskrit mohana can refer to the ability to enchant someone through attractiveness, and the more enchanting the object is, the greater their beauty. The ability to captivate the mind belongs only to those truly special works of art. A stream of joyful tears from the eyes is the most intense response from contact with a beautiful object. Something pure, sweet and loveable elicits this reaction, and it comes only in the rarest of occasions. Perhaps an innocent child has done something sweet for you or your paramour has done something so nice that you can’t imagine why they would bestow such a reward upon you. People cry at weddings when the exchange of emotion is pure, for seeing someone transcend the bounds imposed by material nature is lovely. With Vishvamitra Muni, his tears came from just looking at a youth accompanied by His three younger brothers. A muni is a sort of philosopher, for it is said that one can’t be considered a muni unless they disagree with another muni. This explains why there are so many analysts on television giving so many different opinions. If everyone agreed with one another then there would be no need to have so many analysts. Often times it is in the best interest of the analyst to disagree with the assertions made by the other members of the panel. At least this way they’ll stand out. “The sthita-dhi-muni is always in Krishna consciousness, for he has exhausted all his business of creative speculation. He has surpassed the stage of mental speculations and has come to the conclusion that Lord Shri Krishna, or Vasudeva, is everything.” (ShrilaPrabhupada, Bhagavad-gita, 2.56 Purport) Another kind of muni is a devoted soul, a high thinker who has wisely chosen in favor of bhakti-yoga, ordevotional service, as a way of life. This was the case with Vishvamitra. One time he went to visit the king of Ayodhya, Maharaja Dasharatha, to ask a favor. Before the muni could even make his request, Dasharatha and his queens honored Vishvamitra very nicely. The queens brought with them their sons, of which there were four. Vishvamitra had come to ask for the eldest son, Lord Rama, to accompany him in the forest. The kings during this time period, the Treta Yuga, were fighting men. They held on to their position as head of state because they were best at fighting off enemies. The sons were trained to follow in the father’s footsteps, so it was known to Vishvamitra that Rama was an expert bow warrior. Though in the form of a small child, Rama was the most capable fighter in the world. Since it was the duty of the kshatriya, or warrior class, to protect the sages living in the forest, Vishvamitra didn’t think it awkward to come and request Rama’s protection. The muni had already humbly begged for the same person’s protection throughout his life. Rama was the Supreme Lord, the origin of creation, appearing on earth to enact pastimes and grant His darshana to the sincere souls who would revel in having it. From his reaction upon first seeing Rama, we see that Vishvamitra was one of those worthy souls. He didn’t take God to be an enemy or an imaginary figure. On the contrary, the muni dedicated his life and soul to understanding God and giving sound advice to others on how to reach the same realization through following their prescribed duties. In the religion of love, one can gauge their progress by measuring the emotions that result from their devotional practices. Just as a beautiful painting elicits certain responses in the viewer, the devotee regularly chanting the holy names, “Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare”, and viewing the deity eventually reaches a stage where they feel transcendental ecstasy just by hearing a name of God once. What then to speak of remembering the Lord’s pastimes, of which there are too many to count? It is said that though there are hundreds of thousands of activities of Rama described in the Vedas, Lord Shiva, the greatest of the gods, only takes Rama’s name as his life and soul, chanting it all the time. “Shri Rama’s name is greater than Brahman, and it grants boons to even those who are capable of giving boons. Lord Shiva knowingly selected it out of the one hundred crore verses describing Rama’s acts.” (Dohavali, 31) The holy name is the embodiment of the supreme person it represents. Through love for the holy name, love for Godhead takes place automatically. Vishvamitra’s high standing in bhakti was shown by the reaction he had upon seeing Rama and His brothers. Tears welled up in his eyes, a thrill of excitement went through his body, and his mind became enchanted by Rama’s beauty. In the Vedas, the god of love, Kama, who is the equivalent of a cupid, is known as Madana. The Supreme Lord is so beautiful that He is known as Madana-mohana, or the enchanter of cupid. God’s spiritual form attracts even the liberated souls, captivating their minds and directing them towards transcendental love. This attraction is beneficial because there is no illusion in the Supreme Lord’s vigraha, or body. That form is full of knowledge and bliss, and it remains in existence eternally. Even though Rama would change His form during His time on earth, from boyhood to youth to adulthood, since He is the Supreme Lord, His transcendental form that so captivated Vishvamitra still exists and can be contemplated upon by the mind. Should the devotee be fortunate enough, they will get to see that enchanting vision up close some day in the future. Rama’s brothers - Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna - are just as beautiful. They are plenary portions of the Supreme Lord Narayana, the source of men. Vishvamitra was so happy to be where he was, and he couldn’t believe that these young boys were offering him obeisances. Such is the kind nature of the beneficiary of worship that He shows honor and respect to those who honor Him. After this meeting, Vishvamitra would ask to have Rama accompany him, and the father Dasharatha reluctantly would agree, for he was attached to Rama as well. Lakshmana went with them, and the time they spent in the forest would eventually result in Rama’s marriage to the daughter of King Janaka, Sita Devi. The incident of Vishvamitra’s visit shows us what influence Rama has on people who have a pure heart. The aim of religious practice is to remove the distractions and intoxicating influence of material nature so that the sweet vision of the Supreme Lord can be relished. If we watch a movie while distracted in mind, will we enjoy the most important aspects? Can we concentrate on a conversation with our friends if our mind is distracted? Can we study for an important exam if we are intoxicated? In a similar manner, if the mind is stuck in a feverish pursuit for a material gain or the alleviation of a specific distress, the very mention of religion, the need to worship God or even the vision of the Supreme Lord Himself will not be appreciated. Therefore to complement the assertive bhakti practices, thedevotees avoid the four pillars of sinful life: meat eating, gambling, intoxication and illicit sex. These activities work best at clouding the vision of the individual, causing them to mistake illusion for reality. A rope can be mistaken for a snake only when there is an improper vision. Similarly, the Supreme Lord’s form can be taken to be the image of a mundane personality only when the consciousness is not purified. Vishvamitra, through his dedicated practice of austerity and sacrifice, had no such illusion. He thus exhibited all the signs of transcendental ecstasy when meeting Rama, who is known to have that effect on people. The description of the meeting provided by Goswami Tulsidas in his Janaki Mangala is so heartwarming that one can’t help but feel some of the same excitement. Just as Rama and His brothers are beautiful, so are the devotees who delight in the association of those four wonderful sons of the king. In Closing: To measure in an object its beauty’s might, See the response coming from first sight. Enchantment from beautiful object immediate, In onlookers noted response always elicit. For famous sage through his body a thrill, Loving tears in his eyes vision did fill. Rama and His brothers so kind and sweet, Offered obeisances to sage’s lotus feet. Follow devotion for divine presence to feel, Eternal enchantment is Shri Rama’s appeal.

The Favorable Creator

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“Of all that is material and all that is spiritual in this world, know for certain that I am both its origin and dissolution.” (Lord Krishna, Bhagavad-gita, 7.6) “I’m happy with my life and you’re happy with yours, so what’s the big deal then? Why do I need to worship God if I’m already satisfied from my work? I don’t feel that the days are repetitive, nor is my journey lacking exciting adventures. I love meeting new people, learning from their tendencies and acting out on my desires for happiness. This outlook has worked for me thus far, so why should I change anything? Yes, I understand that death will approach, but shouldn’t that inspire me to make the most out of my life right now? Everyone is pleased by doing what they like to do, so what if religion just isn’t for me?” The spiritualist inclined to worship the Supreme Lord in His personal form through regularly chanting His names, “Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare”, visiting temples, worshiping the deity, reading authorized books about Him, spending hours taxing the brain to understand the highest truths of life and condition oneself for better appreciating the Supreme Lord’s association, and a host of other activities naturally wants to share their joy, the experience gathered from their efforts and their tasting of the fruit of existence, with others. It’s easier to convince someone of a high philosophy when they are struggling, mentally disturbed over the unfair hand that life has dealt them. The most obvious time to turn to spiritual life is after the death of a friend or family member. That person, whose association we cherished, is no longer with us, taken away from the mind’s vision. No longer will we be able to share laughter with them, tell them how much we care about them, or hear their brilliant words of wisdom. “Why do they have to leave? Why does their absence hurt so much? When will my day come? If we all have to die, why do we have to live?” The Bhagavad-gita, the Song of God and most concise and complete treatise on spirituality, explains these issues in the best way that the human being can understand them. Notice that we don’t say that the Bhagavad-gita is a Hindu scripture or a matter of faith that has to be subscribed to immediately. Some will certainly describe this tiny chapter from the famous Mahabharata in this way, but the speaker of the Gita, who is also revealed to be the original creator of all energies, the Supreme Lord Himself, does not present the work as a matter of faith. Rather, the backdrop for the teachings is the hesitation of a previously fearless and fully capable warrior. Not wanting to commence fighting against enemies who were deserving of punishment, this warrior was puzzled as to the role he was meant to play, what he was supposed to do, and if the prescribed action would be beneficial to him and the other members gathered on the battlefield that day. “According to one's existence under the various modes of nature, one evolves a particular kind of faith. The living being is said to be of a particular faith according to the modes he has acquired.” (Lord Krishna, Bhagavad-gita, 17.3) Shri Krishna, the speaker of the Gita, then explained the right course of action in a series of different ways, which were meant to apply to the different faiths that people adopt. Depending on the modes of material nature encasing the spirit soul at the time of birth, the living being adopts a certain kind of faith. Does this mean that the animals also have faith? What about the human beings such as children that don’t know anything? The default condition is ignorance, wherein one doesn’t even know the proper way to get their desired aim. As you steadily ascend the chain of knowledge, not only do the activities become purer, but so do the objectives. Krishna presented the correct choice to Arjuna through the prism of the different modes of material nature. To begin, it was revealed that the spirit soul is the essence of identity, the force behind action. When we see a person who has just passed away, it’s a little strange to think that they are no longer living. The same body is there, but it is now considered lifeless. If only an injection could be made to give the person life again. That “thing” being injected is the spirit soul, which is the seed of existence. Its presence allows for growth, development and eventual decay. Its exit signals the end of the particular being’s existence, though the essence of identity continues to remain vibrant eternally. Since the soul is eternal, slaying someone else in a battle fought under bona fide religious principles does not bring sin to anyone. A sin is just an act that carries a negative consequence; hence sinful behavior should be avoided. One who knows the soul lives in the mode of goodness, which thus represents the kind of faith they adopt. “That knowledge by which a different type of living entity is seen to be dwelling in different bodies is knowledge in the mode of passion.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 18.21) Those in the mode of passion, which is the default mode for the mature human being, think that actions lead to happiness and sadness, and that the body’s welfare is of paramount importance. In one sense, this is where Arjuna’s mind had temporarily drifted towards, for he was worried about killing his friends and family members fighting for the other side. In addition, he was afraid of the sin that would be incurred for having performed such an act. Krishna rightfully pointed out that even under Arjuna’s thinking fighting ahead would be the correct option. Arjuna was famous for being a courageous fighter. For one who has been previously honored, being dishonored is worse than being killed. Arjuna would be dishonored for fleeing the battlefield. He would forever be known as a coward. The opposing warriors would actually respect him more if he stood up and fought, even if he should fail. “If, however, you think that the soul is perpetually born and always dies, still you have no reason to lament, O mighty-armed.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 2.26) In the mode of ignorance one doesn’t even know how to get the happiness they are looking for. Think of being amazed at a blazing fire and trying to touch it. Nothing good will come from the contact, either in the present or in the future; hence the act is part of ignorance. Oversleeping and excessive intoxication fall into the mode of ignorance because they further no beneficial end. If one applied the mode of ignorance to Arjuna’s situation, wherein the future benefits wouldn’t be thought about, that the living beings were just a collection of chemicals that dissipated at the time of death, fighting would still be the correct option. When there is birth, death is guaranteed. If we’re all going to die anyway, why not take the option of fighting? If everything ends with death, what is the use in worrying about the other side and what will happen to them, for they are going to die anyway? From Krishna’s wonderful presentation we see that no matter what mode of material life a person finds themselves in, the prescriptions presented by those following the transcendental engagement of bhakti-yoga, or devotional service, are worthwhile. If a person is happy living their material life and jumping from one venture to another, they still can’t produce anything on their own. The circumstances of their birth were determined by other intelligent beings, namely the mother and father. The protection afforded during the dependent childhood years were also out of the hands of the individual. So many factors contribute to the successes that we have, the falling into place of the right pieces. Therefore we should be thankful to at least the immediately identified benefactors. That gratitude is already expressed to some degree. If this weren’t the case, there would be no such things as award shows and in-depth cover stories in magazines that hail a particular industry tycoon or famous actor. The penchant towards praise, offering service to others, is already there. It is said in the Gita that Krishna is the taste of water. He is the essence of so many things, such as the penances of the ascetics and the original fragrance of the earth. Just by picking up a flower and smelling it, one can think of Krishna. In odd cases where one is deeply mired in ignorance through regular intoxication, if one just thinks of their beloved wine and remembers that Krishna is its taste, some spiritual merits can accumulate. And what is the harm in showing this appreciation? If you are well situated, what would it hurt you to chant the holy names, to recognize that a higher, more intelligent power makes sure that there is no randomness with the sun, moon and earthly elements? If there were only randomness, we could never predict weather patterns and what time the sun rises and sets. The essential elements in life are bountifully provided by the Supreme Lord. Those things that we need, like water, grains and milk, are in much higher supplies than those things that we don’t need, such as animal flesh, jewelry and industrial products. This proves that the Supreme Lord is the most benevolent, that everyone who is happy owes their pleasant condition to Him. Those who are distressed by the turn of events are also favored by the Supreme Lord, for the lack of material fortune helps to speed along the search for higher truths. Those in the mode of pure goodness understand that the pleasant conditions in even material life are due to Shri Krishna’s favor. We could say that such opulence is due to the individual’s effort, but we know that some people work very hard and don’t succeed. Many businesses fail, and many people are dealt difficult hands in life, where they are forced to direct their attention to areas that they may not prefer. Therefore we know that human effort alone is not the cause of the results of action. One area where effort does make a significant impact, however, is in the relationship to the Supreme Lord. His benevolence is diffused everywhere, but unless one makes a conscious effort to appreciate and take advantage of it for the right purposes, the most blissful meeting between the individual soul and the Supreme Soul cannot take place. Just as the results in other areas of life are not fully in our control, by taking to bhakti, turning one’s eyes towards the Supreme Lord in a mood of love, the forthcoming reactions are also out of our hands. Shri Krishna Himself takes full responsibility for the conditions of those who surrender to Him. This is what Arjuna would eventually do, fighting ahead without attachment and without desire for gain. He simply wanted to please Krishna, to remain connected with Him. Krishna took care of the rest. “O son of Kunti, all that you do, all that you eat, all that you offer and give away, as well as all austerities that you may perform, should be done as an offering unto Me.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 9.27) How can we leave everything to Krishna, especially if we are not inclined towards spiritual life? The holy name is Krishna’s most potent incarnation in the modern age. Just sacrifice a little time each day to chant this name, taking it as the most important regulative practice, the one thing that shouldn’t be missed in the daily routine. From connecting with Krishna, one doesn’t even need to explicitly ascend the chain of knowledge. Bhakti-yoga is in pure goodness, so not only are the activities pure, but so is the ultimate objective, that of remaining in yoga, or pure connection with God. What reward can be better than this? Just as each new day brings a renewed vigor to glorify Krishna and remember Him, the future life for the spirit soul maintains the divine connection and enthusiasm for spiritual life. The life as we know it now is simply a demarcation of time, sort of like a splice from a timeline marked off by a start and stop point. The timeline continues regardless of our viewpoint. Whether we splice or not, the soul will continue to exist. In this sense life carries on after the present body perishes. Though the body goes away, that inherent link to Krishna does not for the surrendered soul fully immersed in bhakti. In all cases, whether impoverished or extremely wealthy, there is always a reason to think of God, worship Him, honor Him and ask Him to remain within the consciousness. Such practices make every situation favorable. The mind can make or break our happiness very quickly, so combine a properly situated mind with the blessings of Krishna and what you’ll get is an endless engagement, one that never fails to provide pleasure. In Closing: “Listen to words about God should I why? Already happily situated am I. What need for religion when not in distress? Through my own efforts happiness addressed.” Worship of God is beneficial regardless, Whether you’re in pain or constant happiness. Devotion to Krishna fits every situation, Know it from Bhagavad-gita’s flawless presentation. Arjuna, powerful warrior distressed in mind, From accepting Lord’s words victory to find.

At Lotus Feet of Baba !

Offsetting Global Warming: Molecule in Earth's Atmosphere Could 'Cool the Planet'

Science Daily  — Scientists have shown that a newly discovered molecule in Earth's atmosphere has the potential to play a significant role in off-setting global warming by cooling the planet.

These invisible chemical intermediates are powerful oxidisers of pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, produced by combustion, and can naturally clean up the atmosphere.In a breakthrough paper published inScience, researchers from The University of Manchester, The University of Bristol and Sandia National Laboratories report the potentially revolutionary effects of Criegee biradicals.

Although these chemical intermediates were hypothesised in the 1950s, it is only now that they have been detected. Scientists now believe that, with further research, these species could play a major role in off-setting climate change.

The detection of the Criegee biradical and measurement of how fast it reacts was made possible by a unique apparatus, designed by Sandia researchers, that uses light from a third-generation synchrotron facility, at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's Advanced Light Source.

The intense, tunable light from the synchrotron allowed researchers to discern the formation and removal of different isomeric species -- molecules that contain the same atoms but arranged in different combinations.

The researchers found that the Criegee biradicals react more rapidly than first thought and will accelerate the formation of sulphate and nitrate in the atmosphere. These compounds will lead to aerosol formation and ultimately to cloud formation with the potential to cool the planet.

The formation of Criegee biradicals was first postulated by Rudolf Criegee in the 1950s. However, despite their importance, it has not been possible to directly study these important species in the laboratory.

In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature increased by about 0.8 °C with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just the last three decades.

Most countries have agreed that drastic cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are required, and that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F).

Dr Carl Percival, Reader in Atmospheric Chemistry at The University of Manchester and one of the authors of the paper, believes there could be significant research possibilities arising from the discovery of the Criegee biradicals.

He said: "Criegee radicals have been impossible to measure until this work carried out at the Advanced Light Source. We have been able to quantify how fast Criegee radicals react for the first time.

"Our results will have a significant impact on our understanding of the oxidising capacity of the atmosphere and have wide ranging implications for pollution and climate change.

"The main source of these Criegee biradicals does not depend on sunlight and so these processes take place throughout the day and night."

Professor Dudley Shallcross, Professor in Atmospheric Chemistry at The University of Bristol, added: "A significant ingredient required for the production of these Criegee biradicals comes from chemicals released quite naturally by plants, so natural ecosystems could be playing a significant role in off-setting warming."

Clue as to Why Alcohol Is Addicting: Scientists Show That Drinking Releases Brain Endorphins

 New research shows that drinking alcohol leads to the release of endorphins in areas of the brain that produce feelings of pleasure and reward. (Credit: iStockphoto)

Science  Daily  — Drinking alcohol leads to the release of endorphins in areas of the brain that produce feelings of pleasure and reward, according to a study led by researchers at the Ernest Gallo Clinic and Research Center at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF).

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The finding marks the first time that endorphin release in the nucleus accumbens and orbitofrontal cortex in response to alcohol consumption has been directly observed in humans.

Endorphins are small proteins with opiate-like effects that are produced naturally in the brain.

"This is something that we've speculated about for 30 years, based on animal studies, but haven't observed in humans until now," said lead author Jennifer Mitchell, PhD, clinical project director at the Gallo Center and an adjunct assistant professor of neurology at UCSF. "It provides the first direct evidence of how alcohol makes people feel good."

The discovery of the precise locations in the brain where endorphins are released provides a possible target for the development of more effective drugs for the treatment of alcohol abuse, said senior author Howard L. Fields, MD, PhD, a professor of neurology and Endowed Chair in Pharmacology of Addiction in Neurology at UCSF and director of human clinical research at the Gallo Center.

The study appears on January 11, 2012, in Science Translational Medicine.

The researchers used positron emission tomography, or PET imaging, to observe the immediate effects of alcohol in the brains of 13 heavy drinkers and 12 matched "control" subjects who were not heavy drinkers.

In all of the subjects, alcohol intake led to a release of endorphins. And, in all of the subjects, the more endorphins released in the nucleus accumbens, the greater the feelings of pleasure reported by each drinker.

In addition, the more endorphins released in the orbitofrontal cortex, the greater the feelings of intoxication in the heavy drinkers, but not in the control subjects.

"This indicates that the brains of heavy or problem drinkers are changed in a way that makes them more likely to find alcohol pleasant, and may be a clue to how problem drinking develops in the first place," said Mitchell. "That greater feeling of reward might cause them to drink too much."

Results Suggest Possible Approach to Treat Alcohol Abuse

Before drinking, the subjects were given injections of radioactively tagged carfentanil, an opiate-like drug that selectively binds to sites in the brain called opioid receptors, where endorphins also bind. As the radioactive carfentanil was bound and emitted radiation, the receptor sites "lit up" on PET imaging, allowing the researchers to map their exact locations.

The subjects were then each given a drink of alcohol, followed by a second injection of radioactive carfentanil, and scanned again with PET imaging. As the natural endorphins released by drinking were bound to the opioid receptor sites, they prevented the carfentanil from being bound. By comparing areas of radioactivity in the first and second PET images, the researchers were able to map the exact locations -- areas of lower radioactivity -- where endorphins were released in response to drinking.

The researchers found that endorphins released in response to drinking bind to a specific type of opioid receptor, the Mu receptor.

This result suggests a possible approach to improving the efficacy of treatment for alcohol abuse through the design of better medications than naltrexone, said Fields, who collaborated with Mitchell in the design and analysis of the study.

Fields explained that naltrexone, which prevents binding at opioid receptor sites, is not widely accepted as a treatment for alcohol dependence -- "not because it isn't effective at reducing drinking, but because some people stop taking it because they don't like the way it makes them feel," he said.

"Naltrexone blocks more than one opioid receptor, and we need to know which blocking action reduces drinking and which causes the unwanted side effects," he said. "If we better understand how endorphins control drinking, we will have a better chance of creating more targeted therapies for substance addiction. This paper is a significant step in that direction because it specifically implicates the Mu opioid receptor in alcohol reward in humans."

Co-authors of the study are James P. O'Neill and Mustafa Janabi of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and Shawn M. Marks and William J. Jagust, MD, of LBL and the University of California, Berkeley.

The study was supported by funds from the Department of Defense and by State of California Funds for Research on Drug and Alcohol Abuse.

Evolution Is Written All Over Your Face

                Primates from Central and South America. (Credit: Image courtesy of University of California - Los Angeles)

Science Daily  — Why are the faces of primates so dramatically different from one another?

UCLA biologists working as "evolutionary detectives" studied the faces of 129 adult male primates from Central and South America, and they offer some answers in research published Jan. 11, in the early online edition of the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. The faces they studied evolved over at least 24 million years, they report.

"If you look at New World primates, you're immediately struck by the rich diversity of faces," said Michael Alfaro, a UCLA associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology and the senior author of the study. "You see bright red faces, moustaches, hair tufts and much more. There are unanswered questions about how faces evolve and what factors explain the evolution of facial features. We're very visually oriented, and we get a lot of information from the face."

Some of theprimate species studied are solitary, while others live in groups that can include dozens or even hundreds of others.

The life scientists divided each face into 14 regions; coded the color of each part, including the hair and skin; studied the patterns and anatomy of the faces; and gave each a "facial complexity" score. They studied how the complexity of primate faces evolved over time and examined the primates' social systems. To assess how facial colors are related to physical environments, they analyzed environmental variables, using the longitude and latitude of primates' habitats as a proxy for sun exposure and temperature. They also used statistical methods to analyze the evolutionary history of the primate groups and when they diverged from one another.

"We found very strong support for the idea that as species live in larger groups, their faces become more simple, more plain," said lead author Sharlene Santana, a UCLA postdoctoral scholar in ecology and evolutionary biology and a postdoctoral fellow with UCLA's Institute for Society and Genetics. "We think that is related to their ability to communicate using facial expressions. A face that is more plain could allow the primate to convey expressions more easily.

"Humans have pretty bare faces, which may allow us to see facial expressions more easily than if, for example, we had many colors in our faces."

The researchers' finding that faces are more simple in larger groups came as a surprise.

"Initially, we thought it might be the opposite," Santana said. "You might expect that in larger groups, faces would vary more and have more complex parts that would allow one individual to identify any member of that group. That is not what we found. Species that live in larger groups live in closer proximity to one another and tend to use facial expressions more than species in smaller groups that are more spread out. Being in closer proximity puts a stronger pressure on using facial expressions."

"This finding suggests that facial expressions are increasingly important in large groups," said co-author Jessica Lynch Alfaro, associate director of the UCLA Institute for Society and Genetics. "If you're highly social, then facial expressions matter more than having a highly complex pattern on your face. "

The evolutionary biologists also found that when primates live in environment with more species that are closely related, their faces are more complex, regardless of their group size. This finding is consistent with their need to recognize individuals of other closely related species that live in the same habitat to avoid interbreeding, Santana said.

Santana, Lynch Alfaro and Alfaro present the first quantitative evidence linking social behavior to the evolution of facial diversity and complexity in primates, and they also show that ecology controls aspects of facial patterns.

As species live closer to the equator, the skin and hair around their eyes get darker, the biologists report. They also found that regions of the face around the nose and mouth get darker when species live in humid environments and denser forests and that facial hair gets longer as species live farther from the equator and the climate gets colder, which may be related to regulating body temperature.

"This is a good start toward understanding facial diversity," Alfaro said. "There was not a good idea before about what aspects of faces were shaped by which evolutionary pressure. Sharlene [Santana] has been able to say what social complexity, social behavior and ecology are doing to faces."

In the future, Santana, Lynch Alfaro and Alfaro may use computer facial-recognition software to help quantify the faces in a more sophisticated way. They also plan to study the faces of carnivores, including big cats.

Previous studies, they noted, have found that primate species with moustaches and beards (such as No. 11 and No. 9 in the accompanying image) tend to look poker-faced; they don't move their faces much when they communicate, compared with other species (such as No. 4).

Alfaro praised Santana's ability to answer some of these difficult evolutionary questions.

"Sharlene has tested ideas that have been virtually impossible to test before," he said. "She has found a clever way to implicate the degree of sociality as contributing to the diversity of faces. Social behavior explains some aspects of facial diversity."

Santana also devised a way to test a theory that has been in the biological literature for decades but had never been tested before. As a lineage diverges and species accumulate, a series of changes in facial coloration and body coloration emerges. The theory she was able to test suggests that once a species evolves to have a certain color, such as hair color, the change is irreversible and it cannot evolve back to a previous color in its lineage. Santana found this theory to be wrong.

"The idea in biology that evolutionary change is irreversible is rejected very strongly by our data," Alfaro said.

Lessons for human faces?

Does the study have implications for the evolution of human faces?

The findings do suggest, Alfaro said, that an important factor in shaping human faces is the premium on making unambiguous facial expressions.

"Humans don't have all these elaborate facial ornamentations, but we do have the ability to communicate visually with facial expressions," Alfaro said. "Does reduced coloration complexity create a blank palate for visual expressions that can be conveyed more easily? That is an idea we are testing."

Santana's research is funded by fellowships from the National Science Foundation and UCLA's Institute for Society and Genetics.