Linking brain-derived neurotrophic factor to alcohol dependence

Posted by Biomechanism 

• Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates neuronal plasticity.
• Researchers have found high serum BDNF levels among alcohol-dependent (AD) but abstinent individuals that do not correlate with either chronic drinking or associated toxicity.
• These findings suggest that BDNF may predict relapse in AD individuals undergoing treatment.

One of the ways an alcohol dependence (AD) diagnosis can be made is through measurement of biological markers of hepatic injury such as gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV). These markers, however, are not always sufficiently sensitive or specific enough for determining AD, nor do their levels change rapidly in response to abstinence or relapse. A new study of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which regulates neuronal plasticity, indicates it may predict relapse in AD individuals undergoing treatment.

Results will be published in the November 2011 issue of Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research and are currently available at Early View.

“As we are [located] in a psychiatric hospital, we were sensitive to BDNF and its role in psychiatric diseases,” explained Murielle Girard, a researcher at the Centre Hospitalier Esquirol in Limoges, France and corresponding author for the study. “At the same time, we were beginning [to follow] a cohort of AD subjects in an attempt to better understand their clinical evolution. This study helped us to realize that abstinence from a clinical point of view is not the same as abstinence from a biological point of view.”

Girard explained that the concept of abstinence in this current study includes the notion of abstinent behavior and not just the linkage between alcohol consumption and related toxicity, which is traditionally evaluated through biological markers. “A subject can have reduced alcohol consumption and normalized biological markers but still remain sensitive to drinking and have a high risk of relapse,” she said. “[Markers] are absolutely not an indicator of alcohol dependence, or alcohol craving, they just indicate somatic consequences of excessive alcohol consumption.”

“Three biological markers are pertinent for measuring alcohol consumption,” added Philippe Nubukpo, chief of the addiction department at the Centre Hospitalier Esquirol, “GGT for hepatic injury, MCV for macrocytose without anemia, and carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT).” He agreed with Girard that these markers give information on chronically excessive drinking but not on AD. “What we need today is a biomarker which can reflect AD, and we know that this relies on many interconnected mechanisms. To our knowledge, this study is the first to look for links between BDNF and alcohol abstinence.”

Girard and her colleagues examined serum BDNF levels in 101 (84 men, 17 women) abstinent and relapsing AD individuals at the moment of hospitalization for alcohol withdrawal as well as six months later, and compared those findings to serum BDNF levels of 39 (28 men, 11 women) non-AD individuals who were matched on age and gender. Participants were also tested for their GGT levels, their MCV values, and their score on the Beck Depression Inventory questionnaire.

“Our study [showed] that alcohol consumption and toxicity markers do not exactly reflect the dependence status of the AD subjects,” said Girard. “[Additionally,] abstinence and non-abstinence condition may be accompanied by neurological mechanisms which must be taken into account in the care and the way the patients with dependence are attended.

“People used to believe that AD, due to its neurologic and cerebral toxicity, induced a decrease of BDNF in plasma and that abstinence reversed this because of neuroadaptation and neurogenesis,” said Nubukpo. “In this study, the mean BDNF rate at baseline and six months later showed no difference between AD persons and controls. In fact, those who were totally abstinent or partially abstinent had increased BDNF levels between these two time points. This means that alcohol withdrawal may induce neurological transformations that are reflected by peripheral levels of BDNF.”

“[AD] subjects are often cared for according to a marker of alcohol consumption, rather than a marker of their dependence, but it is the latter that care should target,” said Girard. “[We need to consider] the AD patient from the [perspective] that dependence relies on neurological mechanisms, [and that] patient care [should] consider this dependence status, [not just] their evolution in alcohol consumption, which may be less persistent.”

“Monitoring serum BDNF concentrations could help to characterize AD profiles in clinical practice, help predict relapses, and assist in adjusting care to prevent difficulties in alcohol withdrawal and define people with higher risks of relapse,” said Nubukpo. “In clinical practice, these findings may help to remind professionals that biological markers are only relevant in terms of the toxicity of alcohol consumption, and in no way are they indicators of the behavior in relation to alcohol, which has to be taken into account and explored with other tools. It is too early to assess BDNF as a biological marker of AD, but it should be useful in conjunction with other clinical data.”

Measurements Reveal Extent of Leakage from Japan's Damaged Fukushima Reactor

Air laden with radioactive sulfur can be traced to the source near the Fukushima reactor in Japan using data collected by NOAA. (Credit: Gerardo Dominguez)

Science Daily— Atmospheric chemists at the University of California, San Diego, report the first quantitative measurement of the amount of radiation leaked from the damaged nuclear reactor in Fukushima, Japan, following the devastating earthquake and tsunami earlier this year.

Their estimate, reported this week in the early, online edition of theProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, is based on a signal sent across the Pacific Ocean when operators of the damaged reactor had to resort to cooling overheated fuel with seawater.

"In any disaster, there's always a lot to be learned by analysis of what happened," said senior author Mark Thiemens, Dean of the Division of Physical Sciences at UC San Diego. "We were able to say how many neutrons were leaking out of that core when it was exposed."

On March 28, 2011, 15 days after operators began pumping seawater into the damaged reactors and pools holding spent fuel, Thiemens' group observed an unprecedented spike in the amount of radioactive sulfur in the air in La Jolla, California. They recognized that the signal came from the crippled power plant.

Neutrons and other products of the nuclear reaction leak from fuel rods when they melt. Seawater pumped into the reactor absorbed those neutrons, which collided with chloride ions in the saltwater. Each collision knocked a proton out of the nucleus of a chloride atom, transforming the atom to a radioactive form of sulfur.

When the water hit the hot reactors, nearly all of it vaporized into steam. To prevent explosions of the accumulating hydrogen, operators vented the steam, along with the radioactive sulfur, into the atmosphere.

In air, sulfur reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide gas and then sulfate particles. Both blew across the Pacific Ocean on prevailing westerly winds to an instrument at the end of the pier at UC San Diego's Scripps Institution of Oceanography where Thiemens' group continuously monitors atmospheric sulfur.

Using a model based on NOAA's observations of atmospheric conditions the team determined the path air took on its way to the pier over the preceding 10 days and found that it led back to Fukushima.

Then they calculated how much radiation must have been released. "You know how much seawater they used, how far neutrons will penetrate into the seawater and the size of the chloride ion. From that you can calculate how many neutrons must have reacted with chlorine to make radioactive sulfur," said Antra Priyadarshi, a post-doctoral researcher in Thiemens' lab and first author of the paper.

After accounting for losses along the way as the sulfate particles fell into the ocean, decayed, or eddied away from the stream of air heading toward California, the researchers calculated that 400 billion neutrons were released per square meter surface of the cooling pools, between March 13, when the seawater pumping operation began, and March 20, 2011.

The trace levels of radiation that reached the California coast never posed a threat to human health. "Although the spike that we measured was very high compared to background levels of radioactive sulfur, the absolute amount of radiation that reached California was small. The levels we recorded aren't a concern for human health. In fact, it took sensitive instruments, measuring radioactive decay for hours after lengthy collection of the particles, to precisely measure the amount of radiation," Thiemens said.

Concentrations a kilometer or so above the ocean near Fukushima must have been about 365 times higher than natural levels to account for the levels they observed in California.

The radioactive sulfur that Thiemens and his team observed must have been produced by partially melted nuclear fuel in the reactors or storage ponds. Although cosmic rays can produce radioactive sulfur in the upper atmosphere, that rarely mixes down into the layer of air just above the ocean, where these measurements were made.

Over a four day period ending on March 28th, they measured 1501 atoms of radioactive sulfur in sulfate particles per cubic meter of air, the highest they've ever seen in more than two years of recordings at the site.

Even intrusions from the stratosphere -- rare events that bring naturally produced radioactive sulfur toward Earth's surface -- have produced spikes of only 950 atoms per cubic meter of air at this site.

The nuclear reaction within the cooling seawater marked sulfur that originated in a specific place for a discrete period of time. That allowed researchers to time the transformation of sulfur to sulfur dioxide gas and sulfate particles, and measure their transport across the ocean, both important factors for understanding how sulfate pollutants contribute to climate change.

"We've really used the injection of a radioactive element to an environment to be a tracer of a very important process in nature for which there are some big gaps in understanding," Thiemens said.

The event also created a pulse of labeled sulfur that can be traced in the streams and soils in Japan, to better understand how this element cycles through the environment, work that Thiemens and colleagues in Japan have already begun.

With Your Heart

“For those who have merged in the transcendental mellow of devotion to Shri Rama, being free of all material desires, their minds are like fish that swim in the nectar made of supreme love for the holy name that rests within the heart.” (Dohavali, 30) sakala kāmanā hīna je rāma bhagati rasa līna | nāma suprema piyuṣa hada tinhahum̐ kie mana mina || The heart is where the individual’s reservoir of love resides. In addition to keeping the blood flowing within the living human being, the heart acts as the resting place for the strongest emotion that can possibly be exhibited. With a higher potential for intelligence, the human being can use their heart to strategically distribute love to a host of different objects. Whenever there is an exhibition of pure love, or prema, the release of the emotions is a thing of beauty, something wonderful to behold. If this weren’t the case, people would never cry at weddings. A marriage is just the union between a man and a woman after all, so there is nothing incredibly unique about it. Millions of people have been married since the beginning of time, yet once the sacred vow of trust is taken in front of the many onlookers, the unique exhibition of devotion can bring tears to the eyes. “Just see how much they love each other. What a wonderful sight. To only be able to find your one true love in life and dedicate yourself to them fully, without deviation. Never let them go, always honor and cherish them, and love them no matter how they treat you.” Such lofty ideals are surely difficult to live up to. The parents of newborn children are swelling with affection. Just seeing their beloved child fills their heart with sweet love, which then directs them towards activities that will maintain the happiness and well-being of their new dependent. Along similar lines, the romantically involved lover will feel they need to do whatever it takes to keep their beloved happy. When actively involved in the highest exchange of loving emotions, even being reproached is not enough to stop the lover from pushing forward. “If I love you with conditions, my love is not pure.” Those devoted to the supreme loveable object, the entity from whom everything in this world emanates, have a difficult time accurately describing their emotions. Rather, the greatest transcendental lovers always doubt their position, taking themselves to be inferior. As an example, when Lord Rama, the Supreme Lord’s incarnation as a warrior prince during the Treta Yuga, was forced to leave the kingdom of Ayodhya because of a series of unfortunate events, the king of the city, Maharaja Dasharatha, couldn’t bear the separation. Rama was the king’s eldest son, the one he had the strongest attachment to. Rama had previously left Dasharatha’s company, but not for very long. During ancient times the kings were members of the fighting class, so they were trained in the military arts from a young age. Things were no different with Dasharatha and his four sons: Rama, Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. That God can come to earth and appear in a royal dynasty is not out of the realm of possibility. Shri Ramachandra, the jewel of the Raghu family line, the maintainer of the dedication to dharma found in the Ikshvaku dynasty, is not a sectarian hero who can only be worshiped by those in India. Rather, during His descents to earth the Supreme Lord is identified by His remarkable possession of divine attributes. There is no equivalent term for “God” in the Vedas, the ancient scriptures of India. The word “deva” can mean a god, but it typically refers to a godly entity. “Ishvara” also can mean a god, but it is generally equated with a chief or ruler. The word “Bhagavan”, which means the “most fortunate”, is the best matching term. Whoever has the most wealth, beauty, strength, fame, knowledge and renunciation is the Supreme Lord of all creatures. Rama showed that He had these opulences as well as the association of the most wonderful divine figures. Rama’s wife was Sita Devi, the princess of Videha. This world has never seen a woman more beautiful than Sita, nor will it in the future. She is the embodiment of dharma, dedication to religious principles, and devotion to God. Lakshmana, Rama’s younger brother, was so attached to Rama that he couldn’t eat or sleep without his beloved brother by his side. Lakshmana was also a great bow warrior, and his stature cannot be compared to anyone else’s. Rama’s most dear servant was Hanuman, who also is one of the most respected living entities to have ever appeared on this earth. Even if we are hesitant to accept Rama as God from the statements of the Vedas and the Lord’s exhibition of different divine qualities, we can take it on the authority of Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman that Rama is the Supreme Lord. The trio is sinless and lacking nothing in knowledge. If they dedicate their lives to bringing pleasure to the most merciful Shri Rama, why shouldn’t we? Rama is the same God that we all either accept, deny, or pretend doesn’t exist. During His youth, Rama was asked to accompany the venerable Vishvamitra Muni for a brief period of time in the forest. When the sage arrived in the kingdom to take Rama, Dasharatha promised to give him whatever he wanted, but when the king heard that Rama was leaving, he regretted having made that promise. Nevertheless, Rama had to protect the innocent sages residing in the forest, for they were being attacked by Rakshasas, man-eaters looking to stamp out religiosity in its most potent form. Rama returned shortly after travelling with Vishvamitra, thus allowing the king to see the lord of his life breath once again. But when Rama was later ordered to leave Ayodhya for fourteen years, Dasharatha couldn’t handle the separation. He waited until he knew for sure that Rama was indeed going to carry out the exile sentence, and then he quit his body. Though it seems like a sad death, we know from the Bhagavad-gita that thinking of God while dying represents perfection in life. Whatever state of being one remembers at the end of life, that state they will attain without fail. With God on the mind, the living entity achieves the Lord’s association in the afterlife, company that never has to be renounced. Rama’s mother, Queen Kausalya, later lamented that her heart must not have been filled with love, for she didn’t die upon Rama’s leaving Ayodhya. Her husband was so attached to Rama that he gave up his life upon separation, while she remained alive. She cursed herself for having a heart made of stone. Though she felt this way, her heart was indeed pure, for she never forgot about her son for even a moment. The avataras, or incarnations, don’t just randomly pick people to act as their parents. Rather, only those who have committed many pious acts in previous lives get the rare opportunity to engage in the transcendental mellow ofvatsalya, or parental affection, with God. For those who try to follow in the standard of devotion set by the residents of Ayodhya, the comparison to the behavior of the fish is often invoked. Just like Dasharatha, the fish is so attached to something that it will renounce its life upon separation. For the fish the attached object is its habitat, the water. The practicing devotee hopes to have the same attachment to God. Therefore in the above referenced verse from the Dohavali, Goswami Tulsidas compares being immersed in bhakti-rasa, or devotional service, to having the mind swim in an ocean of nectar. First, there is the engagement in the transcendental mellow of devotion to Rama, or God, coupled with renunciation of material desires. A way to understand this is to think of the behavior of a good spouse. For a person romantically involved with someone else, the understanding is that the partner will love them no matter what, that they will never try to please another person in a romantic way. The more devoted they are, the more they will abandon outside attachment. Similarly, in bhakti, the aim is to have a loving relationship with God. The joy of the relationship is relished more fully when desire for personal satisfaction, be it through sense gratification or the accumulation of fame and money, is stamped out. When the devotee is fully merged in the bhakti spirit, the heart begins to swell up with love, similar to how the cow begins to pour forth milk when it hears its newborn calf crying. God is meant to be our eternal loveable object, the corresponding life partner to constantly remain by our side and give us comfort and pleasure. When engaged in acts of devotion, the heart increases its love for God. More specifically, love for the holy name is what fills the heart of the bhakta, for the Lord is not different from His name. Chanting, “Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare”, is the most effective method of spiritual practice, because it can be instantiated anywhere, and by any person. No need to visit a temple or sit down for a formal ritual. These tools may help in the progression towards a purified consciousness, but they are not requirements for merging into the bhakti spirit. Chant spontaneously and without material desires. The more you chant, the stronger your love will be. In full God consciousness, the heart swells with nectar produced of love for the holy name. The mind then swims in it like a fish. The analogy made by Tulsidas is important because it says that once the mind finds a suitable habitat, it becomes so attached to it that it dies upon separation. The fish swimming in the ocean of transcendental nectar refuses to live without its beloved holy name, the central component to bhakti. It is every lover’s dream to be able to have the same attachment for their beloved object that the fish has to water. Tulsidas gives us the formula to find that level of devotion. Follow Rama-bhakti, eliminate material desires, and have supreme love, or suprema, for the holy name. Can we practice bhakti towards someone else besides Rama? God is a singular entity, though He has different visible manifestations tailored for different moods of worship. Bhakti is meant for transcendental love, so it can only apply to the one person who is beyond the temporary material existence. Though God can take many forms, this doesn’t mean that His personal presence is everywhere. We can’t just pick up a rock and think that we have found God. Moreover, we can’t just speak gibberish and expect the words to be equivalent to God. Just as the mother cow understands the calls of its beloved calves, the Supreme Lord hears the cries of His devotees when they chant the holy names. The different names are listed in the Vedic scriptures. Aside from having Sanskrit meanings, the holy names are meant for addressing God in His original form. Only if they harbor material desires are the worshipers advised to worship someone who is not God. Since bhakti does not mix well with kama, or desire, untainted love is meant exclusively for the Supreme Lord, whose original form is described as being all-attractive. Hence one of His primary names is Krishna. Bask in the sweetness of Shri Rama’s smiling face by holding a profound love for His name. Form the one attachment that will best define you; say that you are Rama’s and that Rama is yours. You will never be the loser. In fact, every beneficial attribute will arrive in the palm of your hand, ready to be used in furthering your service to your beloved. Find a way to love God with all your heart, so that you don’t have to find temporary habitations, places which you can never be fully attached to, anymore. The temporary manifestation will be destroyed eventually, thus leaving even the most dedicated worshipers of matter bereft of their partner. Rama, on the other hand, never abandons the fish swimming in the nectar of divine love. As a reward for their dedication, the pure devotees are transferred to the spiritual realm, which is overflowing with waters of devotion.

Clearing Up iPhone 5 Rumor Confusion

Alex, 

As Apple’s next media event draws near, rumors are flying left and right about when the event will take place, what will be announced, etc. When it gets this close to showtime, the rumor mill goes into full throttle. Various news sites and tech pundits share their knowledge of Apple’s secret plans through unknown, “reliable sources” that always seem to be “familiar with the matter.”
You probably already know this, but Apple is going to release a new iPhone soon. Some even think that Apple will release two iPhones soon. Most think that Apple’s next announcement will be iPhone-centric, and the event is definitely going to take place before the holidays.
But honestly, that’s all anyone knows right now. Still, let’s try to clear up some of the confusion…
It’s easy to get caught in the rumor crossfire when you read Apple sites, and sometimes it helps to take a step back and look at everything from a 10,000 foot view.
This past Friday is a great example of how confusing and contradictory the Apple rumor mill can be. In one day, a rumor came out that Apple’s next media event would take place on September 7th. This report was then followed by a debunking of that rumor within hours from a more credible source. In the same day, a separate rumor was published that Apple’s next event would take place on October 7th. AllThingsD then felt the need to reiterate its previous report of an October date, by saying that “it’s all coming” in October.
Whew. If you follow Apple rumors/news as closely as I do, that’s one confusing day.
Why are Apple rumors so contradictory? And why are so many sites publishing — for the most part — far-fetched speculaton that will never actually come true?
It’s simple:

1. People love speculating about Apple.
2. Apple missed its typical iPhone announcement date this year at WWDC, and people are itching for what’s next.
3. Nothing has leaked or been hinted about from Apple about plans for the next media event.

Last year, there was the infamous iPhone 4 leak at a certain bar near a certain fruit company’s headquarters. This year, short of a few rumblings that don’t really mean anything, nothing has been explicitly uncovered about what Apple has planned for the next iPhone.
Here’s what the iPhone 5 will most likely be like:

1. It will have a faster, A5 processor.
2. It will have a better camera (probably 8 megapixels).
3. It will differ from the iPhone 4 design-wise.

That’s all we really know. And, honestly, even those three things could be wrong.
Then there’s the wild conspiracy theory that Apple will release a second iPhone model alongside a new flagship device. As Apple’s next announcement draws nearer, the rumor of a cloud-based, cheaper iCloud-Nano-Lite-iPhone hybrid is gaining more and more traction. There’s a very good chance that Apple will unveil a new iPhone to take on a cheaper market, although that device could end up being a 3G-equipped iPod touch.
(All I’m saying is that, if a second, cheaper iPhone does come out, I called it back in April.)
In terms of when Apple will unveil its next iPhone, here’s what we know:

1. The next iPhone(s) will come out before the holiday season.
2. iPhone hardware will be the main focus of the next Apple event.
3. The event will probably take place by mid-October.

Apple has always held its music/iPod event in September, but the unusual nature of Apple’s product announcement dates in 2011 hints that the next event will be different. Apple won’t announce new iPods before a new iPhone, because that would make investors go nuts. Apple also won’t wait until after Christmas to announce a new product, because that would hurt their potential bottom line on top of making the investors go nuts.
With all this said, it’s important to reiterate that no one really knows anything. This is all informed guesswork based off history and industry intel.
Here’s what we know:

1. People love to speculate about Apple.
2. There will be a new iPhone eventually.
3. What we don’t know about Apple is why we love Apple so much.

Google's purchase of Motorola Mobility

Arming Android

SHOCK. Bombshell. Incredible. Even seasoned observers of the technology industry could not hide their surprise when it was announced on Monday, August 15th, that Google, the online giant, would buy Motorola Mobility, a maker of handsets and other electronic devices, for a whopping $12.5 billion. The deal not only comes as a surprise, it will have a big impact on the mobile industry, too.

For starters, the merger is very good news for the shareholders of Motorola Mobility, among them Carl Icahn, the activist investor. The offer—$40 a share in cash—is 63% above the closing price of Motorola Mobility’s shares on Friday. It is unlikely that shareholders would have got such a price on the open market any time soon. Although Motorola Mobility, which was only spun-off from Motorola in January, has staged something of a turnaround, it is still too small to compete with much bigger rivals such as Apple, Nokia and Samsung. Since March its shares had been trading below their issue price of $25.

As for Google, although it will spend about one-third of its cash on the biggest acquisition in its 13-year history, it will also get a lot: plenty of ammunition in the ongoing battle between mobile platforms. Android, Google’s operating system for smartphones and other mobile devices, has taken the world by storm. In America it now powers nearly 40% of new smartphones, outdoing the platforms of Apple and RIM, the maker of BlackBerry smartphones. Worldwide more than 150m Android devices have been activated, a number that is growing by more than half a million every day.

Yet the Android “ecosystem”, as geeks call it, is also facing growing challenges. For one, the operating system has yet to make much headway in the market for computing tablets, mainly because Android devices are still not as user-friendly as Apple’s iPad. More importantly, although Google does not charge for Android, it is becoming increasingly costly for handset-makers—because rivals claim it infringes on intellectual property owned by other firms. In early 2010 HTC, one of the leading vendors of Android devices, agreed to pay royalties to Microsoft for the use of its patents ($5 per device, according to some estimates). And in July Apple won a legal victory against HTC in apatent infringement suit, which could lead to even higher payments.

Taking over Motorola will help Google to overcome both of these problems. Owning a handset-maker allows the firm to integrate software and hardware more smoothly. It should not only be able to deliver more competitive Android tablets, but speed up the development of other sorts of consumer electronics (Motorola Mobility also sells television set-top boxes). In addition, Google will gain control of Motorola’s huge portfolio of intellectual property, which includes 17,000 patents worldwide. This will give Google—and, indirectly, makers of Android devices—a much better bargaining position in current and future legal battles, which include litigation brought by Oracle, a software firm, over Android’s use of Java, a software technology.

Although Motorola Mobility’s shares soared close to the price offered by Google, suggesting that the market thinks that the takeover will succeed, it could still hit snags. Another suitor may emerge, possibly Oracle. Antitrust authorities on both sides of the Atlantic, which already have Google in their sights, will certainly take a close look, although it seems unlikely that they will block the merger. More fundamentally, the acquisition could discourage other handset-makers from using Android for their devices if they worry that Motorola will gain an unfair advantage. To allay such fears, Google has said that it will run Motorola as a separate business and that it will not change in any way how it manages Android.

Even if the merger, as so many before it, turns out to be a costly mistake, it is another sign that the market for smartphones and other mobile devices will end up looking different from the personal-computer industry. Whereas with PCs operating systems were developed by one set of companies (mostly Microsoft) and the machines by another (Dell, HP, Acer), mobile devices seem to demand a deeper integration of software and hardware, delivered by a single firm. This has always been Apple’s approach. HP also has its own mobile operating system, WebOS.

Google now seems to be going down this path, and others may follow suit. After the announcement of Google’s takeover of Motorola Mobility, analysts began speculating that Microsoft might now buy RIM or, more likely, Nokia, which has already agreed to use Microsoft’s Windows Phone as the software to power its next generation of smartphones

Can the Private Sector Play a Helpful Role in Education? It Can, If it Targets Disadvantaged Students

SUBMITTED BY HARRY A. PATRINOS 

The following piece appeared as a guest blog in the UK's Guardian this past week.

A good public education system means public spending – but not necessarily public provision.

In OECD countries, more than 20% of public education expenditure goes toprivate institutions – communities, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), faith-based organisations, trade unions, private companies, small informal providers and individual practitioners – and about 12% is spent on privately-managed institutions.

But does private participation mean higher quality education? Does it bring better exam results? Can it encourage greater equality?

Evidence shows that in the independent sector, where schools depend on fees, it is often the case that once you control for family background, the actual benefits of private schooling disappear. But in systems where access is not limited by selection or wealth, privately-managed schools can contribute to better outcomes.

In the Netherlands, 70% of enrolments are in "private" schools that receive a fixed amount of government funding per student (with extra funding for disadvantaged students). On average, families tend to be from a lower social class than those of pupils attending "public" schools, and yet test scores achieved are higher. The level of choice offered appears to provide incentives for Dutch schools to keep improving.

Japanese high schools use private tuition support, which has been shown to lower drop-out rates among students taking less academic study pathways.

The Charter schools in the US have had a real impact on narrowing achievement gaps. TheHarlem Children's Zone, which combines schooling with community support such as help with healthcare and meals, could reverse the black-white achievement gap in maths, according to trials; the Knowledge is Power schools have been criticised for only improving test scores through selection, but evidence shows that the largest gains are among young people with special educational needs and limited English.

The picture internationally is that involving the private sector can improve school performance – through competition, accountability and autonomy – as well as expand access. However, without strong systems of accountability, private schools with public funding aren't likely to produce large gains.

The best results come where competition is enhanced through choice, disadvantaged areas are targeted and there is plenty of autonomy at school level.

Any new approach – such as the free-schools model in the UK – needs to be subjected to rigorous evaluation of its impact. Small-scale pilots are needed initially, with investment going only to projects that have been proved to work.

And moving forward, each country has a lot to learn from others. Keeping a watch on the international picture, benchmarking education policies, will be important for raising standards and addressing inequality.

Harry Patrinos is lead education economist at the World Bank, on secondment as a visiting research fellow at the UK's CfBT Education Trust.

Photograph: Startraks Photo/Rex Features

Near Record High Food Prices Keep Poorest People on the Edge

Food Prices in Somalia Soar on Drought, Conflict, and Displacement WASHINGTON, August 15, 2011−Global food prices are at high levels and when combined with continued volatility, put the poorest people in the developing world at continued risk, according to the World Bank Group’s Food Price Watch released today. While the emergency in the Horn of Africa was triggered by prolonged droughts, especially in areas struggling with conflict and internal displacement such as Somalia, food prices that are near the record high levels seen in 2008 also contributed to the situation, the report said. Over the last three months, reportedly 29,000 children under five have died in Somalia and 600,000 children in the region remain at risk in the ongoing crisis that is threatening the lives and livelihoods of more than 12 million people. "Nowhere are high food prices, poverty and instability combining to produce tragic suffering more than in the Horn of Africa,” said World Bank President Robert B. Zoellick. “The World Bank is stepping up with short term help through safety nets to the poor and the vulnerable in places like Kenya and Ethiopia, along with medium term support for economic recovery. Long term support is also critical to build drought resilience and implement climate-smart farming." The Food Price Watch says global food prices in July 2011 remain significantly higher than a year ago. Prices overall remained 33 percent higher than a year ago with commodities such as maize (up 84 percent), sugar (up 62 percent), wheat (up 55 percent) and soybean oil (up 47 percent) contributing to the increase. Crude oil prices are 45 percent higher from July 2010 levels, affecting production costs and the price of fertilizers, which increased by 67 percent over the same period. Prices from April through July settled roughly five percent below the recent spike in February 2011 due to modest declines in grains, fats and oil, and other foods such as meat, fruits, and sugar. However, prices of some commodities remained volatile during this period. For example, maize and wheat prices declined in June and then increased in the first half of July. The price of rice fell from February to May, but has since increased. “Persistently high food prices and low food stocks indicate that we’re still in the danger zone, with the most vulnerable people the least able to cope,” Zoellick said. “Vigilance is vital given the uncertainties and volatility that exists today. There is no cushion.” The quarterly report warns that vigilance is needed as global food stocks remain low and expected volatility in the prices of sugar, rice, and petroleum products could have unexpected effects on food prices in the months ahead. Uncertainties about the global economy combined with the political situation in the Middle East and North Africa region will likely to keep oil prices volatile in the short term, it added. Domestic food prices continued to be volatile across countries. Maize prices, for instance, were up more than 100 percent in Kampala, Mogadishu and Kigali markets in the 12 months to June; while prices for maize fell 19 percent in Port-au-Prince and Mexico City. In the midst of these large price variations, domestic prices of key staples increased sharply in a number of regions in the past quarter, notably in Central and South America and East Africa. The report also says sustained increases in food prices are driving up inflation in a number of countries such as Ethiopia and Guatemala among others. In Somalia, prices of locally produced cereals have continued to increase in all regions since October 2010 and have now exceeded their 2008 peak levels. Prices of the two major commodities that are domestically produced, red sorghum and white maize, have increased up to 240 percent and 154 percent respectively. Prices of imported commodities, such as rice, sugar, wheat flour, vegetable oil, and petrol, are also higher than a year ago. Out of 3.7 million people in crisis in Somalia, 3.2 million are in urgent need and 2.8 million of these people are in the south. Poor farmers with no stock and no means to purchase food are among the worst affected, as are the displaced given their difficulties accessing food. The urban poor are suffering from increases in the cost of living and falling wages. The World Bank Group is providing $686 million to save lives, improve social protection, and foster economic recovery and drought resilience for people in the Horn of Africa. Initially, the Bank will target the most vulnerable by enhancing safety nets. Economic recovery will be the focus over the next two years. In the longer term, the Bank will focus on building resilience to droughts, including investments in drought risk reduction and risk financing, as well as climate-smart agricultural practices. “We are stepping up to address this crisis with a sense of urgency,” said Zoellick, who has been advocating for the G20 to put food first since the beginning of this year. The G20 Agriculture Ministers meeting in June agreed to exempt humanitarian food aid from export bans and to pilot small regional emergency food reserves that could be used to replenish national safety nets. The ministers also agreed on more transparency, more coordination, stronger risk management instruments and more investment in production. The G20 Heads of State are due to meet on these issues in November. How the World Bank Group is helping to put food first ·         The World Bank Group is providing $686 million to save lives, improve social protection, and foster economic recovery and drought resilience for people in the Horn of Africa. More than 12 million people are affected by the crisis. ·         A first-of-its-kind World Bank Group risk management product, provided by International Finance Corporation (IFC), will enable up to $4 billion in protection from volatile food prices for farmers, food producers, and consumers in developing countries. ·         The Global Food Crisis Response Program (GFRP) is helping some 40 million people through $1.5 billion in support. ·         The World Bank Group is boosting its spending on agriculture to some $6 to $8 billion a year from $4.1 billion in 2008. ·         Supporting the Global Agriculture and Food Security Program (GAFSP), set up by the World Bank Group in April 2010 (at G20’s request) to assist country-led agriculture and food security plans and help promote investments in smallholder farmers. To date, six countries and Gates Foundation have pledged about $925 million over the next three years, with $520 million received. ·         The World Bank Group is coordinating with UN agencies through the High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis and with NGOs. Contacts:  In Washington: Michael Jelenic, (202) 473-2075, mjelenic@worldbank.org;  In Australia: Camille Funnell, 0423 606 850, cfunnell@worldbank.org; Aleta Moriarty, 0409 157 705, amoriarty@worldbank.org; Broadcast Requests: Natalia Cieslik, (202) 458-9369, ncieslik@worldbank.org For more information, please visit: www.worldbank.org/  Visit us on Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/worldbank Be updated via Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/worldbank For our YouTube channel: http://www.youtube.com/worldbank