Pimples and Acne

What are the sebaceous glands?

The sebaceous glands are tiny skin glands which secrete sebum - an waxy/oily substance - to lubricate the skin and hair of mammals (humans are mammals).

In human beings they exist throughout all skin sites except the palms and soles; there is a greater abundance of sebaceous glands on the face and scalp. In our eyelids, meibomian sebaceous glands secrete a special type of sebum into tears.

Several medical conditions are linked to an abnormality in sebaceous gland function, including:

• Acne (pimples).
• Sebaceous cysts - closed sacs or cysts below the surface of the skin.
• Hyperplasia - the sebaceous glands become enlarged, producing yellow, shiny bumps on the face.
• Sebaceous adenoma - a slow-growing tumor (benign, non-cancerous) usually presenting as a pink, flesh-colored, or yellow papule or nodule.
• Sebaceous gland carcinoma - an aggressive (cancerous) and uncommon skin tumor.

If a breakout occurs, doctors recommend that they be treated promptly to prevent the risk developing severe acne. There is also the danger that untreated severe acne may result in visible scars on the skin.

What are Pimples?
Bacterial infection in the overactive oil glands situated at the base of the skin generally leads to the formation of Pimples. They are usually pus-filled raised bumps on the skin. Pimples are ugly to look at and hence considered a source of social embarrassment. The face, neck, chest, back and even shoulders are some of the most common sites of this infection.

Frequent breakouts of Pimples are referred to as Acne. Infected blackheads and whiteheads usually lead to the formation of Pimples. Contrary to the popular belief, Pimples are not caused due to dirt, sweat, or consumption of oily foods, chocolates, etc.

Though, the popular conception that Pimples should not be squeezed holds true. The act of picking or squeezing Pimples is discouraged as it may lead to further inflammation and scarring. Although many over the counter medicines and creams are often suggested to cure Pimples, still people are more attracted towards the natural cures in the form of natural home remedies for Pimples because they are safer and cheaper than the conventions methods of treatment.

Causes and Symptoms of Pimples
As already mentioned, overactive oil glands play an important role in causing Pimples. The oil glands tend to become overactive due to overstimulation caused by hormonal changes. The hormonal changes could be triggered by puberty.

Hormonal changes caused by menstrual cycles also contribute in the development of Pimple in women. Though, the problem tends to subside once the hormones settle down. Hereditary factors may also be held responsible for causing Pimples and Acne in some cases.

Medicines containing lithium, iodides, bromides, steroids etc have been associated with the worsening of Pimples. Repeatedly washing Pimple affected area may also aggravate the problem as skin tends to produce more oil in response to repeated washing and harsh scrubbing. Stress has also been associated, though indirectly, with frequent breakouts of Pimples.

Pimples are generally characterized by red or yellow colored inflammations on the skin. They are often filled with pus. When a Pimple is squeezed, the pus spreads on the surrounding area resulting in further infection. Moreover, the act of squeezing increases the probability of leaving behind scars even after the healing. These pus-filled Pimples are less commonly known as Pustules.

Natural Home Remedies for Pimples

• Add lemon juice and rose water in equal quantities and apply this mixture on the affected area for about half an hour. Regularly following this remdial procedure for about three to four weeks is one of the most popular natural home remedies for Pimples.

• Lemon juice can also be applied in combination with an equal amount of groundnut oil to prevent as well as cure this embarrassing problem. Similarly, lemon juice can also be added to sandalwood powder and the application of the resultant paste can help reduce Pimples to a great extent. A combination of lemon juice and cinnamon power is also beneficial in Pimple treatment.

• Honey is also considered good for skin. Applying a mixture prepared from three tablespoons of honey and one teaspoon of cinnamon powder over night is another popular natural cure for this irritating problem. This natural remedy is sure to give encouraging results if religiously followed for at least two weeks.

• A facial mask consisting of grated apple and honey serves as an effective home treatment for Pimples and Acne.

• Rubbing garlic on the affected area several times in a day is one of the most effective though smelly natural home remedies for Pimples. For quicker results, garlic should also be taken internally.

• Regularly applying the pulp of ripe tomatoes on the face for about an hour or so helps in the effective treatment of Pimples. Cucumber pulp can also be used in the same way with the same results.

• Raw papaya juice can be applied on the Pimples to cure Pimples naturally.

• Simply applying freshly extracted mint juice serves as one of the easiest possible natural home remedies for Pimples.

• Applying a mixture of coriander juice and some turmeric is an effective home remedy for Pimple treatment. Alternatively, if coriander juice is not available then mint juice can be used in its place.

• Add two to three teaspoons of dried basil leaves to one cup water and boil the mixture for about 15-20 minutes. Cool the mixture and then apply it on the affected area. This therapeutic home remedy should be followed on a regular basis to get rid of Pimples naturally.

• Mix some water in a mixture of crushed margosa (neem) leaves and turmeric to make a fine paste. Finally, rub the resultant mixture on the Pimples and leave it on the skin for about half an hour to heal Pimples successfully and remove the left over scars too.

• Take some roasted and powdered peels of pomegranate fruit. Next, add some lime juice to this powder to make a paste like mixture. Applying this mixture is one of the most valuable natural home remedies for Pimples.

• Take some fenugreek leaves, crush them and add sufficient water, just enough to make a paste. Apply this paste on the face over night and wash it off with warm water in the morning as an effective natural remedy for natural Pimple removal. This remedy is particularly useful for individuals with dry skin.

• Take some grinded nutmeg and add a little raw milk to it. Apply the mixture and leave it for about one or two hours. This natural home remedy is not only beneficial in curing Pimples but is useful in getting rid of their scars as well.

• Tea tree oil and aloe vera gel have anti bacterial and anti inflammatory properties that help in dealing with Pimples. Marigold and wheat germ oil are also effective against Pimples.

• Applying a mixture prepared from fuller’s earth and some water or rose water is a tried and tested Pimple cure. Fuller’s earth helps absorb excess oil from the skin.

Diet for Pimples
Judicious mix of a variety of fresh fruits, vegetables, grains, seeds etc constitutes a healthy and balanced diet. A diet rich in vitamin A and zinc is highly recommended to deal with this problem. Moreover, consumption of wheatgrass juice helps in controlling Pimples effectively.

Oils extracted from corns, sunflowers, and safflowers have been associated with therapeutic properties for curing as well as preventing Pimples. Plus, regular and adequate consumption of fruit juices and water is considered favorable for the skin.

Though, fried and fatty foods do not cause Pimples by themselves, still they do not even help in the process of healing. Self control is the essence of any favorable treatment. Caffeinated and sugary products tend to produce toxins which are harmful for the overall health. Moreover, over consumption of junk food may prove to be unfavorable for the healing process.

What are the causes of pimples?

The sebaceous glands, which produce sebum, exist inside the pores of our skin. The outer layers of our skin are being shed continuously.
Sometimes, dead skin cells are left behind and get stuck together by the sticky sebum, causing a blockage in the pore.
Pore blockage is more likely to occur during puberty (the process of physical changes by which a child's body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction). More sebum is produced by the sebaceous gland - as the pore is blocked, it accumulates behind the blockage.
This accumulated and blocked sebum has bacteria, including Propionibacterium acnes; this slow-growing bacterium is linked to acne. Propionibacterium acnesgenerally exists harmlessly on our skin - however, when the conditions are right, it can reproduce more rapidly and become a problem. The bacterium feeds off the sebum and produces a substance that causes an immune response, leading to inflammation of the skin and spots.
The skin of people who are prone to acne are especially sensitive to normal blood levels of testosterone - a natural hormone found in both males and females. In such people the testosterone can make the sebaceous glands produce too much sebum, making the clogging up of dead skin cells more likely, which in turn increases the probability of blocking the pores, etc.
You cannot catch pimples from another person; they are not infectious.
There is no scientifically compelling evidence to prove that pimples are caused by diet.
Having pimples or acne can be hereditary.

Signs and symptoms of pimples - Types of pimples

• Whiteheads - also known as a closed comedo. These are very small and remain under the skin, appearing as a small, flesh-colored papules.
• Blackheads - also known as an open comedo. These are clearly visible; they are black and appear on the surface of the skin. Some people mistakenly believe they are caused by dirt, because of their color, and scrub their faces vigorously - this does not help and may irritate the skin and cause other problems.
• Papules - these are small, solid, rounded bumps that rise from the skin. The bumps are often pink.
• Pustules - these are pimples full of pus. They are clearly visible on the surface of the skin. The base is red and the pus is on the top.
• Nodules - these are morphologically similar (similar structure) to papules, but larger. They can be painful and are embedded deep in the skin.
• Cysts - these are clearly visible on the surface of the skin. They are filled with pus and are usually painful. Cysts commonly cause scars.

How common are pimples (acne)?

Acne is the most common skin disease for adolescents. According to the British Medical Journal (Clinical Evidence, Authors: Sarah Purdy, David DeBerker):

• More than 80% of teenagers get acne at some point.
• A community sample of 14 to 16 year-olds in the United Kingdom revealed that acne affected 50% of them.
• A sample study of adolescents in New Zealand found acne was present in 91% of boys and 79% of girls.
• A sample study of adolescents in Portugal found that the average prevalence of acne (in both sexes) was 82%.
• 30% of teenagers with acne required medical treatment because of its severity.
• General practitioners (GPs, primary care physicians) in the UK reported that 3.1% of 13 to 25 year-old patients visited them complaining of acne.
• The incidence of acne is similar in both adult males and females.
• Doctors report that acne appears to peak at 17 years of age.
• Acne incidence (presence, occurrence) in adults is increasing, doctors report. We don't know why.

What Causes Acne

There is no exact cause for acne. There are several factors that doctors think bring on this problem for many people. One important factor is thehormone level in the body. The hormones are called androgens and increase in both boys and girls when they are going through puberty. This is the reason why there are so many pre teens and teenagers that have to deal with acne medication to treat it.
Another cause of acne is genetics. If a child has a parent that had to deal with a lot of acne as a child, then chances are they will too. When a pre-teen or teenager sees that they are having a problem with acne, it is important for them to seek acne medication to help fight this problem early so that there are no long term affects of the acne.
One factor that can cause acne in girls is their menstrual period. This is a time when hormones are really active and this can cause a flare up of problems in most pre-adolescent girls. There are many acne medications that can treat this problem and get their skin looking perfect again over a time period. It will take time for the skin to clear up and get back to normal.
Pregnancy and birth control pills are another reason why women get acne. When a woman is pregnant this is a time when her hormones are changing and all different things are happening to her body. Birth control pills are another source that will cause women to have an acne problem and have to resort to acne medications.
Certain medications that people have to take can also cause acne to occur in certain people. This is typically normal and can affect just about anyone. Usually once the body accepts the medications the acne will stop or at least lessen. There are acne medications to help when this is the case.
Certain fabrics as well can cause acne to appear also. Wearing tight collars, backpacks, and hats can bring on a case of acne on any part of the body. That is another factor; acne can be on any part of the body. It is not just limited to the face. When acne appears on different parts of the body, you may be able to control it with over the counter medicine or you may have to go to a doctor for your acne medications.
There are many myths of how acne starts, like eating chocolate or greasy foods. However, there are no actual links to these rumors and it is not proven. However, in some cases a person’s diet will affect their skin and that it why it is important to have a healthy well balanced diet so that you do not need acne medications in the future.

Acne Treatment Information

Most people have suffered from acne at some time in their lives. There are several approaches for acne treatment, each with its own considered purpose. Two main reasons behind acne treatments are to clear breakouts and lesions from the skin and to prevent acne scars. These are the most pertinent objectives for finding an appropriate approach.
The first intention behind clearing the skin from lesions and breakouts is perhaps the more widespread reason behind discovering the best acne treatment. One general rule is to only wash the area affected by acne twice each day. Too much washing can irritate the skin and cause the acne to worsen.
Many doctors suggest a medication applied directly to the affected area. There are a number of topical medications designed as acne treatment. These products exfoliate the skin. The upper layer of skin frequently comprises dead cells that work to obstruct the pores. When the skin is exfoliated, the dead layer of skin is removed, leaving a fresh new layer that will not cause obstruction and cause acne problems.
Topical acne treatments like Biotherm AcnoPur removes oils and bacteria that are present in pimples. The topical medicineremoves the oil and dirt from the pores, causing the affected area to dry up rapidly. Such acne medications are also effective in reducing inflammation associated with many acne breakouts. The reduction of redness and swelling makes the acne pimples less noticeable.
After the skin is cleared, many people find themselves carrying around a few scars. Another purpose for acne treatment is to prevent or even heal acne scarring. Because acne scars vary in severity, the approaches vary as well. Some are quite simple while others have more impact. It is up to the individual to choose which acne treatment might be appropriate, according to the significance of the scarring.

Day Home Remedy For Acne

If you need a quick and simple way to get rid of acne fast then this will be the most important article you’ll be reading today.

Here’s why: What I am about to reveal to you is a simple home remedy for acne so effective that you can apply it and see clearer skin in just 7 days.
What’s more. the information you’re about to read in this article is not fluff. It contains hardcore step-by-step information that reveals the exact steps I use every time I need to get rid of my acne fast for special occasions.
More importantly. This method has never failed me (works every time I used it).
And let me tell you.  None of what I’m about to reveal to you is brain surgery. You can easily learn it within 2 minutes. And apply it and be done with it within 5 minutes.
What is this home remedy for acne?
This home remedy for acne uses something you may already have in your home: limes and milk. Limes with milk have a soothing affect on acne. It calms and relieves the redness that acne causes. Therefore, it makes your acne less noticeable and smaller in just a few days.
And in some cases, it completely eliminates it.
But before you run into the bathroom and start applying lime and milk on your acne, there are a few steps you need to follow:
Here’s the steps you need to follow for best results:

1. Before you go to sleep, wash your face (or area where your acne is) preferably with an anti-bacterial face wash. It won’t work if you’re applying tooth paste on dirty or oily skin.
2. After you’re done washing your skin, rinse it with cold water, and dry it up with a soft towel or cloth. (Note: don’t dry your skin by scrubbing it with a towel or you’ll just irritate it and make it worse. Just tap it gently and softly until it dries.)
3. Boil the milk and then mix it with lime juice. Apply a small amount of the lime and milk mixture on your zits, pimples, acne, or whatever you call it or whatever it is that you have.
4. Relax for about 20 minutes then rinse it off with cold water. Try to keep your body cool during the 20 minutes. Don’t exercise or do any type of activities that will make you sweat. Or else it will be a waste of time.

After a few days, you will see that the big pimples (acne) are smaller and not as red as it was before. And the small pimples may have completely disappear.

Again, this home remedy for acne works best, if your skin is clean when applying the lime and milk mixture and you’re relaxing after applying it.

How To Prevent Acne and Pimples

Pimples are tiny skin lesions or inflammations of the skin. They usually develop after blackheads or whiteheads become clogged and infected. They may appear as deeper lumps (cysts or nodules) on the face, neck, chest, back and sometimes shoulders.

Before we begin to learn about how to prevent acne and pimples it is important to understand how pimples are formed.
There are oil glands on our chest, face and back numbering in the thousands. In fact, between the nose and cheek areas there are as many as two thousand oil glands every square inch. The function of these oil glands is to lubricate the skin by producing oil, or sebum. Oil that is produced in the glands flows through follicles or tiny ducts to the surface of the skin.
In acne sufferers, the uneven shedding of dead skin cells constantly clog the oil glands. Bacteria then invades the area, feeding on the sebum resulting in a blemish (or internal lump). Our bodies respond by fighting the bacteria with white blood cells. As these cells die off they form puss which builds up, swelling the area, resulting in apimple. At this stage the pimple can develop further into nodules and cysts that go deep into the skin. These can be quite painful and even lead to scars.
Acnezine is a skin care management system that has been highly successful in preventing pimple breakouts by attacking the root of the problem. It consists of a skin anti-oxidant taken orally and a moisturizing cream containing benzoyl peroxide, one of the first proven treatments for acne which has been used for decades.
In addition to whatever treatment you are using and advice you have sought, here are 5 basic tips that will go a long way in helping you prevent acne and pimples:

1. Commit to a strict regimen – Depending on the day’s activities, set specific times to wash your face with a suitable cleanser (Avoid oil & alcohol based cleansers as they leave your skin dry and tight). Note that over-washing may lead to your skin producing even more oil. When it comes to applying skincare products, avoid oil-based ones. If your dermatologist prescribes a skincare regimen, sticking to it will produce the best results in the long-term.
2. Avoid contact with your face – Our hands are consistently “dirty”. Unless absolutely necessary, avoid touching your face. By doing so, you are preventing bacteria and dirt from clogging your skin pores. In addition, those with long hair should try keeping your hair from direct contact with your face as our hair traps dust and dirt throughout the day.
3. Do not allow sweat to linger – Those with sporty lifestyles should as far as possible wipe away excessive sweat from the skin during exercise. After exercise, it is important to use a mild face cleanser to get rid of dirt and dried sweat as soon as possible. Consider using a gentle exfoliate to remove dead skin once or twice a week.
4. Avoid scratching, pinching & squeezing – While it might look inviting to pop that irritating pimple on your face, doing so might lead to permanent scarring and leave the spot redder and more swollen.
5. Seek early treatment – In most cases, severe acne problems can be avoided through seeking early treatment from a qualified dermatologist. Having your dermatologist prescribe a regimen of surgical treatments, skincare products and constant review will accelerate the healing process as well as prevent future breakouts.

PIMPLE PREVENTION

When you are looking for skin care measures that could prevent pimples, you might want to:

a) Practice Clean Skin Habits:

Keeping the skin well cleansed will deter the formation of pimples. Using a mild cleanser at the start of your day, in the evening, and before bed is recommended. Avoid scrubbing your skin, which has the potential to make matters worse.

b) Keep Your Hands Off:

Touching your skin passes extra dirt, oil, bacteria, and grime that can trigger acne and other skin irritations. Also, if you see a pimple start to form, you should refrain from squeezing, pinching, or picking.

c) Shave With Caution:

The way you shave can also irritate the skin to provoke pimples to form. Depending on your skin sensitivity, you may have to find a balance between electric and safety razors.

d) Read All Skin Care Labels:

When purchasing skin care products, you should be on the lookout for words, such as “oil-free,” “greaseless,” “hypoallergenic,” and “noncomedogenic”

Mental simulations of social thought and action

 Psychology & Psychiatry 

We live in a world with people from diverse cultures, different societies and varied communities. Unfortunately, all those differences can sometimes result in segregation and discrimination. Reducing prejudice and creating more open minded societies has been the focal point of recent research and now, a new study in this field suggests that mental simulation is a key component of behavioral change strategies. Though this approach is controversial, authors Richard J. Crisp, Michèle D. Birtel, and Rose Meleady at the University of Kent, believe that this will assist in reducing prejudice and discrimination.

According to the article, which will be published in the August edition of Current Directions in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, there have been many examples of successful mental simulation. Athletes have been shown to improve performance after imagining themselves running faster or working harder. Students have done better in school after imagining themselves scheduling their time to study.

The authors refer to a theory developed by Gordon W. Allport in the 1950’s called the contact hypothesis, or intergroup contact theory.

According to author Crisp, “The contact hypothesis says if you bring people together under positive conditions, it will reduce prejudice and better the attitudes people have towards one another.”

Crisp goes on to say, “We’ve seen the contact hypothesis work hundreds of times, but it only works if there is the opportunity for contact among different groups of people. Where there is no opportunity for contact, mental simulation may provide a solution.”

Mental simulation and the use of imagery plays a key role in many areas of psychological science. The authors stress that imagery has been shown to be a natural part of the way we think and is helpful in changing behavior. Crisp suggests, “Imagery should not replace face to face contact, but what it might do is prepare people to engage in interactions in a more successful way.”

More information: http://cdp.sagepub.com/

Provided by American Psychiatric Association

"Mental simulations of social thought and action." August 5th, 2011. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-08-mental-simulations-social-thought-action.html

Posted by
Robert Karl Stonjek

Brain training increases dopamine release

 Psychology & Psychiatry 

It is known that training can improve working memory. In a new study in Science, researchers from Karolinska Institutet, Umeå University, Åbo Akademi University, and the University of Turku show for the first time that working-memory training is associated with an increased release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in specific brain regions.

"Working-memory training resulted in increased dopamine release in the caudate, a region located below the neocortex, in which the dopaminergic influx is particularly large", says Lars Bäckman, Professor at Karolinska Institutet, and one of the scientists behind the study. "This observation demonstrates the importance of dopamine for improving working-memory performance."

In the study, 10 young Finnish men were trained in updating working memory for five weeks by means of a letter-memory task. The participants were presented with 7 to 15 letters during 45 minutes three times per week on a screen that was turned off after presentation. The task was to remember the last four letters in the sequence in correct order. (The training programme can be found on-line, see link further down)

Compared to a control group that did not receive any training, the trained group showed a gradual improvement of working-memory performance. Results from a PET scan demonstrated an increased release of dopamine in the caudate after training. In addition, dopamine release was seen during the letter-memory task also before training; this release increased markedly after training.

Further, improvements after training were demonstrated in an untrained task that also requires updating.

"These findings suggest that the training improved working memory generally", says Professor Lars Nyberg at Umeå University.

Provided by Karolinska Institutet

"Brain training increases dopamine release." August 5th, 2011. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-08-brain-dopamine.html

Posted by
Robert Karl Stonjek

Nipples stimulate the same area of the brain as genitals do

A new study published in the Journal of Sexual Medicine reveals medical evidence that women’s nipples stimulate the brain in the same way that genital stimulation does, something most women already know.

A team of researchers at Rutgers University led by psychologist Barry Komisaruk, recruited 11 healthy women between the ages of 23 and 56. The women were placed in an fMRI scanner and asked to stimulate their cervix, nipple, clitoris and vagina with either a rhythmic finger tap or plastic dildo.

The brain images of the women revealed increased activity in the medial paracentral lobule for each area of stimulation, however each stimulated area was responsible for lighting up a specific region.

There are four nerves that bring signals to the brain from the genital region. The pudendal nerve is connected to the clitoris, the pelvic nerve to the vagina, the hypogastric nerve to the cervix and uterus and the vagus nerve which also connects the cervix.

Nipple stimulation during breast-feeding is known to cause the release of oxytocin which triggers uterine contractions and Komisaruk believes this then sends a signal to the genital area of the brain. However, the few men who have been studied under the same controls show similar activity to nipple stimulation. One of the study researchers is now also looking at women who have had a hysterectomy to see if the response is the same.

Komisaruk hopes that this new research will lead to information to help people who are unable to reach orgasm but is also looking at ways to use this pleasurable stimulation to directly control brain activity. According to Komisaruk, learning to better understand and control the part of the brain that produces pleasurable sensations could make a difference in the treatment of depression, anxiety, addiction or even obesity.

© 2010 PhysOrg.com

"Nipples stimulate the same area of the brain as genitals do." August 5th, 2011. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-08-nipples-area-brain-genitals.html

Comment:
This is just the kind of thing that all budding lab assistants dream of just before they get to examine the contents of the lower bowel of rabid dogs....dreams and reality: they can't all fit into the same box...

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Robert Karl Stonjek

Open Finances for Development

Biggest experiment on the planet

Project Nim: Film Review

Follow the strange and unsettling life of a young male chimp whom researchers tried to raise like a human.

By Simon Frantz 

Nim Chimpsky, as seen in Project Nim
Harry Benson

Can a chimpanzee learn language and grammar like humans if it is raised and nurtured by them? No, it’s not the subject of the latest Planet of the Apes film, but Project Nim—a fascinating and provocative documentary about a likeable chimp who found himself the focus of a landmark behavioral psychology experiment in the 1970s.

In November 1973, a 10-day-old chimpanzee called Nim was plucked from his mother in an Oklahoma primate research center, and raised like a child by a team of researchers led by Herbert Terrace, a psychology professor at Columbia University. The researchers invited Nim into their homes, fed him, potty trained him, even taught him sign language and table manners. Nim appeared to take to human care quite well, living a seemingly happy and healthy life and successfully learned some 125 signs to use in multi-word phrases like “Hug me Nim” or “Banana Nim eat.” But Terrace concluded that that the animal was merely imitating his trainers or using the phrases to get what he wanted, rather than actually constructing sentences as a human child would.

Nim Chimpsky with Herbert Terrace and research student Stephanie LaFarge, as seen in Project Nim
Harry Benson

It was a controversial and high-profile experiment: Nim appeared on the cover of New York Magazine in 1975, and the results were eventually published in Science in 1979. And today, Nim is the star of a new full-length film—Project Nim. Though the experiment clearly raises some serious ethical questions by today’s standards, the film skims only briefly over the scientific controversies—and the science itself—behind the study. Instead, director James Marsh focuses on Nim’s life, creating a conventional biopic that just happens to have a chimpanzee as its lead.

The effect is refreshing and unsettling. Like the heroes of the classic 18^thcentury novels, the fate of Nim holds up a mirror to the world around him, and it isn’t always a pleasant view. We see the clinical cold-heartedness of Terrace, to whom Nim was simply the focus of a scientific study, compared with the idealism, sometimes self-absorbed nature, of the young research assistants, who regarded and loved Nim as a child (and in two instances regarded Terrace as a lover, which created its own complications). We see Nim’s early life in the wealthy bohemia of Manhattan’s Upper West Side, complete with unconventional antics like breastfeeding. We see Nim move to a large estate in upstate New York, where he is adopted by a succession of young female students, with whom he is as affectionate, playful and mischievous as any 2-year-old child, and where his sign-language skills flourish. We see Nim show heart-breaking signs of tenderness, kissing away a person’s tears in one instance, and the emergence of more aggressive “chimp-like” behaviour, attacking anyone he sees as being weak, even mauling the face of a female researcher on one occasion. Finally, we see what happens after the study is ended abruptly and without explanation by Terrace after 5 years (much to the chagrin of his colleagues), how Nim is forced into the unfamiliar environment of living and socializing with other chimpanzees, sold for medical research, and ultimately rescued by the high-profile US animal-rights activist Cleveland Amory. And along the way, we see Nim making lifelong friends with some of the helpers, even drinking an occasional beer and smoking an occasional joint with them (especially with Bob Ingersoll, the Deadhead helper who emerges as the one true hero of the film, excluding Nim).

Research student Laura-Ann Petitto teaching Nim Chimpsky sign language, as seen in Project Nim
Susan Kuklin

Treading a similar line to his Academy Award-winning documentary Man on Wire, Marsh skilfully chronicles Nim’s epic journey through a combination of interviews with key players, archive footage and re-enacted scenes. Occasionally the musical score and the re-enacted scenes are heightened to an unnecessarily overdramatic level. But to his immense credit, Marsh refuses to indulge in any finger-pointing, giving the key players equal room to tell their sides of the story and allowing the viewer to make up his or her own mind about the characters and the issues addressed.

Some might bemoan Project Nim’s lack of science, and very little focus is paid to whether any worthwhile information came out of this nature/nurture study. However, by focusing on Nim’s life, the film triggers a profound and complex reaction. Project Nimraises questions beyond the ethics of animal experimentation, prompting questions about how we define humane treatment and our hubris in the pursuit of scientific knowledge. Though such a topic can be uncomfortable to take on, let it not deter you from seeing this film, whose probing, funny, and poignant scenes will provoke the minds of any responsible scientist.

The film is based on Elizabeth Hess’s book, Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human. It was released in the United States last month, and will be appear in UK theaters next Thursday (August 11).

Source: TheScientist
http://the-scientist.com/2011/08/05/project-nim-film-review/

Posted by
Robert Karl Stonjek

Females Can Place Limits On Evolution of Attractive Features in Males, Research Shows

Female túngara frogs have a limited cognitive ability to recognize increasing elaboration in male mating calls. Fringe-lipped bats that hunt the singing males also have a limited cognitive ability to notice increases in male call complexity. So, the evolution of increasing complexity in male calls is limited by decreased female response rather than increased predation. (Credit: Photo composite by Michael Teague O'Mara. Photos by A. Baugh, K. Lampert and A. Lang.)

Science Daily  — Female cognitive ability can limit how melodious or handsome males become over evolutionary time, biologists from The University of Texas at Austin, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute have observed.

In a new paper appearing this week in Science, a group of biologists have shown that females themselves can also limit the evolution of increased elaboration.Males across the animal world have evolved elaborate traits to attract females, from huge peacock tails to complex bird songs and frog calls. But what keeps them from getting more colorful feathers, longer tails, or more melodious songs? Predators, for one. Increased elaboration can draw predators in, placing an enormous cost to males with these sexy traits.

Studying neotropical túngara frogs, they found that females lose their ability to detect differences in male mating calls as the calls become more elaborate.

"We have shown that the female túngara frog brains have evolved to process some kinds of information and not others," says Mike Ryan, professor of integrative biology at The University of Texas at Austin, "and that this limits the evolution of those signals."

Imagine looking at a group of five oranges next to a group of six. At a glance, you would quickly notice that one group has one more orange than the other. Now, imagine looking at a pile of 100 oranges next to a pile of 101. It would be nearly impossible for you to notice the difference in size (one orange) between those two piles at a glance. This is known as Weber's Law, which states that stimuli are compared based on proportional differences rather than absolute differences (one orange in the case above).

In túngara frogs, males gather en masse to attract female frogs with a call that is made up of a longer "whine" followed by one or more short "chucks."

Through a series of experiments conducted in Panama, Ryan and his collaborators found that females prefer male calls with the most chucks, but their preference was based on the ratio of the number of chucks. As males elaborate their call by adding more chucks, their relative increase in attractiveness decreases due to a perceptual constraint on the part of females.

Male túngara frog calls also attract a predator: the frog eating fringe-lipped bat. To confirm that male song elaboration wasn't limited by these predators, the researchers also studied how the bats respond to additional "chucks" in the male call.

They discovered that hunting bats choose their prey based on chuck number ratio, just as the female frogs do. So, as males elaborate their call by adding chucks, the relative increase in predation risk decreases with each additional chuck.

"What this tells us is that predation risk is unlikely to limit male call evolution," says Karin Akre, lecturer at The University of Texas at Austin. "Instead, it is the females' cognition that limits the evolution of increasing chuck number."

Stop apnoea: curb heart attack

THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

Treatment with the CPAP device reduced post-meal blood fat levels. Image: nicolesy/iStockphoto Sleep apnoea patients who are successfully treated have lower blood fat levels and a reduced risk of heart attack than people who are left untreated, University of Sydney researchers have found. Sleep apnoea, a condition in which people stop breathing momentarily while sleeping, affects up to 20 percent of the population. The researchers found treatment with a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device reduced post-meal blood fat (triglyceride) levels. The study was conducted at the University of Sydney's NHMRC Centre for Integrated Research and Understanding of Sleep (CIRUS) and published in the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. The researchers investigated blood fat levels across a 24-hour period after standard meals in 38 patients with sleep apnoea. Patients were studied both before and after two months of CPAP and two months with a placebo CPAP device. "We know that blood fat levels after meals are an important predictor of future cardiovascular disease. This research provides a possible reason why patients with sleep apnoea are at increased risk of heart attacks and strokes," said lead author Dr Craig Phillips, who holds joint appointments with CIRUS and Royal North Shore Hospital. "Although the results need to be confirmed in larger studies, we estimate that the extent of the improvement in triglycerides with CPAP could reduce the risk for heart attack in these patients by as much as 25 percent." Study senior author, Professor Ron Grunstein from CIRUS, commented: "Another interesting aspect of the study was that triglyceride levels were particularly high in the middle of the night during sleep, almost seven hours after the evening meal. "There may be an influence of the body clock that pushes up blood fat levels at these times," he said. "If this is the case, the higher rates of cardiovascular disease in night shift workers may be caused by eating high fat meals at a time when the body can't properly control blood fat levels." The researchers are currently studying this possibility using special shiftwork simulation facilities located at the University of Sydney's Woolcock Institute.

Speedy test for candidemia

MASSEY UNIVERSITY

Microscopic view of Candida albicans Image: pulmonary pathology, Flickr CC-licensed A team led by a Massey University researcher has developed a diagnostic tool that could save the lives of some of the 60 people estimated to die each year in New Zealand from the fungal infection candidemia – and thousands of such patients worldwide. Dr Jan Schmid, a senior lecturer in microbiology within the Institute of Molecular Biosciences BioMedical Research group, has discovered a particular strain of Candida albicans, a yeast infection, which is twice as likely to lead to death in young immuno-compromised patients such as prematurely born infants. “Candidemia is a disease that is time-consuming and difficult to diagnose,” Dr Schmid says. “It affects patients, who are already quite sick, and by the time it is diagnosed through blood analysis it is often too late.” Dr Schmid’s team discovered a Candida genotype that is more virulent in young patients. “We analysed a strain collection in Italy with mortality data from patients,” he says. “What we found is that young patients with this particular genotype were twice as likely to die from candidemia.” From that, a PCR assay – a diagnostic tool that can identify the genotype – was developed. “The assay can be utilised as a risk management tool for compromised patients who are susceptible to candidemia,” Dr Schmid says. “It can identify, in advance, patients who are more likely to die from the infection than other patients.” Those patients could then be treated preventatively with anti-fungal drugs. “Anti-fungal drugs are not very good for people, especially for patients who are already compromised. Plus their frequent use leads to drug-resistant strains. So using them prophylactically on all patients at risk from candidemia is not recommended,” he says. “With this test, clinicians can easily identify those patients who would most benefit from prophylactic anti-fungal treatment.” The incidence of life-threatening blood-borne infections of immune-compromised patients with Candida yeasts has increased 10-fold in New Zealand over the past 20 years. “Candidemia is the most common fungal infection we see in our hospitals and our calculations suggest it may kill as many as 60 New Zealanders each year,” Dr Schmid says. “Based on the number of cases last year, and the recorded increase in the length of hospital stays, these infections may cost the New Zealand health system as much as $18m annually.” Dr Schmid’s research team included other researchers at the institute, and researchers from Italy and Sweden. The research was published in the Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

Farm life risks blood cancer

MASSEY UNIVERSITY

The risk of developing a blood cancer was thrice as high for those who grew up on a poultry farm.  Image: johnnyscriv/iStockphoto New research findings into farmers’ health and cancer risks shows growing up on a livestock farm seems to be linked to an increased risk of developing blood cancers as an adult. The findings were published by the UK-basedOccupational and Environmental Medicine journal. Centre for Public Health researcher Dr Andrea ‘t Mannetje and her team found the risk of developing a blood cancer was three times as high for those who had grown up on a poultry farm. The authors based their findings on an analysis of more than 114,000 death certification records from 1998 to 2003 for those aged between 35 and 85 and resident in New Zealand. The study is part of a programme grant made by the Health Research Council to the Centre for research into different aspects of occupational health. The findings support previous studies that suggest that farmers are at increased risk of blood cancers; the possible explanations for which have focused on exposure to pesticides or infections as a result of contact with farm animals. However, most of the previous research has focused on exposure in adulthood, with little information on potential early life factors. During the study period, just over 3000 deaths were attributed to blood cancers and growing up on a livestock farm was associated with a higher risk of developing such a cancer. This association was not apparent for those who had grown up on arable/crop farm, although working on one of these farms as an adult was associated with a higher risk. The analysis showed that the overall risk of developing a blood cancer, such as leukaemia, multiple myeloma, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, was 22 per cent higher for those growing up on livestock farm compared with those who had not grown up in this environment.   Growing up on an arable/crop farm conferred an almost 20 per cent lower risk of developing a blood cancer, but crop farming as an adult was associated with an almost 50 per cent increased risk. Dr ‘t Mannetje says further studies would be needed before a definitive cause and effect can be established, but that the study suggested that farming exposures in adulthood and childhood played independent roles in the development of haematological cancers. The team wants to test its hypothesis that biological exposures in childhood may alter the immune system’s response, so increasing the risk of blood cancer in later life.