Thanks NAVATHARAN.. PHOTOGRAPHY |
Science Daily — A research team at Michigan State University has developed a laser that could detect roadside bombs -- the deadliest enemy weapon encountered in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Monday, September 19, 2011
Language and Culture – Guide to Study
Language and Culture – Guide to Study
Objectives
To provide an overview of the effects of political, economic and social conditions on culture.
1. To examine the relationship
between language and culture.
2. To understand how the culture
of a country changes with the process of development,
modernization and globalization
modernization and globalization
3. To understand the Sri Lankan
society in the era of globalization.
4. To examine the factors which led to cultural liberty in today's diverse world.
Structure
- Introduction
- Language and learning
- Culture
- Culture and modernization
- Globalization and global culture
- Sri Lankan society in an era of globalization
- Cultural liberty in today's diversity world
1.
Introduction
There is a close
link between language and culture, as language is an important element in culture. A human being's behaviour results from two influences: its genetic endowment and its life
experiences.
The behaviour
and development of the child of today is determined not only by the biological
adaptation made by species in the normal course of evolution but also by the
accumulated collective experience of the whole of mankind or in other words the
social environment and the laws and customs of an organized society. Thus much of the experiences of mankind is
embodied in his culture. The child is
dependent upon adults to a very large extent in his attempt to understand
social environment.
Individuals value a sense of identity and belonging to a group with shared values and other bonds of culture. However, each individual can identify with many different groups. Accommodating diverse ethnicities, religions, languages, and values is an inescapable feature of the 21st-century cultural environment.
2.
Language and Learning
Language is a crucial factor for human beings. Many of the higher animals learn the behaviour patterns of the species through imitation, e.g. kittens, and puppies. But in the case of human beings the process
of education is transformed. The human
parents teach not only by examples but also by telling. This means of course, that patterns of
behaviour can be set up in the absence of the situation to which they are
relevant. The child depends on adults not only for their bodily needs but also in their attempts to master the skills needed for their social environment. A child left
to himself is unlikely to learn any of the human skills. Further, without the guidance of parents and society at large, all the processes which are regarded as characteristics of civilized man are inaccessible to the child. In other words, the social heritage transmitted to the child by adults is
what differentiates man from other animals
In primitive societies, the transmission of knowledge and skills from parents to children was adequate because they were relatively simple skills. But with scientific and technological advances, skills and techniques became increasingly complex, and the transmission became increasingly a specialist
job.
Today in a society of extremely rapid technological and scientific
change adults need to be educated to a much higher level than ever in the past.
Man uses language as a symbol system and it enables him to use as a
“capsule of thought” providing a meaning to a word or in other words as
concepts. The concept is in abstraction
from objects, situations or events of the attributes these phenomena have in
common. The words we use symbolize or
stand for these concepts. Because of the
symbolizing and conceptual nature of language the process of conditioning are
greatly modified in man instead of responding only to the physical nature of
stimuli. Most of his behaviour is influenced by the symbolic aspect of
stimuli. The effect of this is to
introduce an extraordinary flexibility in to learning in man.
3.
Culture
Culture is totality of learned-socially transmitted behavour. In other words all the “products and
services” of a society. Emile Durkheim
one of the founders of modern sociology defines culture as “culture is seen as
a design for living, an aspect of the social structure ensuring the cohesion
and continuity of society”.
Max Weber – another outstanding sociologist has put forward another
view. “Culture is the product of
interaction between the individuals and society”. This approach emphasizes the symbolic nature of culture and focuses on the symbols, beliefs, values, norms, rituals and activities involved in the construction of everyday social reality.
There are different connotations attached to culture as “popular
culture” “high culture” national culture” “youth culture” “multi culture”
“global culture etc. Elements of culture are
1.
Language
2.
Norms
3.
Values
4.
Religion
5.
Dress and food
6.
Natural environment
7. Man-made environment
4.
Culture and modernization
There is always a link between culture and development. The meanings attached to the term development
are produced within and by a particular cultural context that of so called.
West or more precisely, the political economic and social institutions of
Euro-American societies generating a particular discourse of or way of talking
about development. Seen in this way it
becomes clear that development is a cultural artefact, rather than a natural
process which can be accelerated and guided by development planning. Today we categories societies into
“developed” “developing” and “underdeveloped”.
Culture played an important role in distinguishing modern form
traditional societies. Modernization involved development planning as a key
strategy to achieve desired change with the state playing an important role.
In the eyes of modernization theorists modernization is
- A revolutionary process involving radical and total changes in developing societies.
- A complex process including industrialization, urbanization social mobilization differentiation, secularization, media expansion, expansion of political participation, increasing literacy and education.
- A systemic process in the sense that “economic development cultural change and political change together in coherent and even to some extent predictable patterns (Inglehart – 1977)
The policy makers promote modern cultural traits in “Third world”
countries which would enable modernization to occur -Example - western
education system.
There is a close link between modernization, development and
westernization which will result in “Third world countries resembling Western
Europe and United States. Many views
were expressed by sociologists regarding this modernization. One group of sociologist expressed that
through modernization rupturing, breaking even destroying cultural traditions
of third world societies may occur.
Another group of sociologist says that “Third World” cultures are
homogeneous, stable and have historical backgrounds. They doubt whether westernization can completely
destroy their traditional cultures. The
third group of sociologist says that in Third World Countries both the
traditional and modern cultural tracts are visible side by side.
5. Globalization and Global Culture
The concept globalization has developed quite recently. In 1960s globalization had an important
effects in many parts of the world.
World wars particularly World War II with its aftermath, the rise of
what become known as the Third World, the proliferation of international,
transnational and super national institutions and the attempts to co-ordinate
that has become known as global economy have played crucial parts in
globalization. Media - centred “global village” was partly shaped by such
development (miller 1973)
Furthermore modernization of the Third World societies, collapse of
Communism in 1990s and the wave of societal democratization resulted in
globalization. Material aspects of
globalization extend to changing context and process of print and electronic
media, diet, dress, economics business and financial structures and process of
relationship between labour and capital, knowledge and technology and many
other operational elements. These
material dimensions create new opportunities and expectations for exchange and
communication.
In the face of these trends, state governments are challenged to
devise policies to ensure protection of public good and services within their
jurisdiction despite their weakening levels of control. Protection of labour and environment
conditions is threatened by prospects of capital flight in the face of
regulatory initiatives. The states
capacity to prevent the introduction of pornography and unsuitable literature
is undermined by the prospects of trade actions aimed at securing market access
for media industries. Policies aimed at
capital accumulation and development of indigenous technologies are challenged
by a combination of private capital mobility and state action in pursuit of
free trade objectives of private sector.
6. Sri Lankan Society in an era of Globalization
Sri Lanka has experienced enormous societal changes in the past few
decades. These changes have forced the
society and the government to confront issues which had never previously been
encountered. With the process of globalization
in Sri Lanka, the impact has been in stimulating the shift from agriculture
towards manufacturing and services employment increase in job related migration
and international networking civil society organizations.
The competition for resources and status and claims on the
disruptive benefits provided by the state all helped to push along the
questioning of existing societical arrangements. Necessity and widening horizons are working
together to advance change. At the local
level, people are collaborating much more frequently to seek improvements in
their communities agitating for better schools, questioning land use policies
and calling for accountability of local authorities.
A number of civil society organizations has multiplied. At the national level new political parties,
new social movements, new cultural mobilizations have emerged in unprecedented
numbers in the last decade. In Sri Lanka
this is illustrated by the state threatening challenges of the Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Elam and of the Sinhalese radicals as the Janatha Vimukthi
Peramuna.
There exist
social cohesion providing evidence of ethnic nationalism promoted by political
and cultural leaders in both the majority
Sinhalese community and among the minority Tamil. The reflexivity in practices of social
control and power relations that has been stimulated by globalization is both
undercutting efforts to sustain existing forms of social cohesion and
simultaneously creating ideological and social space for new forms of social
centered. Sri Lanka will have to take up
the task of consciously building a new society.
The dynamic social arrangements in the country require constant
re-thinking redefined purposes and renewed cooperation to flourish. When previous the governing mechanism has
failed in uplifting the economy, distribution of benefits when cultural traditions
evoked to divide people, when individual potentialities are not tapped properly
then the time has come to think about alternative ways of organizing
society. Thus Sri Lanka has reached a
crucial moment in its history.
There is no model that can be borrowed or copied in the societical
reconstruction to understand the problems, philosophy/principle and
procedures. A realistic assessment of
the issues facing the society requires a careful and an honest investigation
which includes a continuing role for those most directly affect.
Fortunately Sri Lanka has a strong tradition of vigourous public
debate and local voluntary organizations form to address problems and give
voice the gieveness and concern. It also
has a strong tradition of socially informed empirical research departments alive
in colleges, universities and other research institutions. In the face of rapid change occurring with the process of globalization, this change has to be dealt with by democratic mobilization.
7. Cultural liberty in today’s diverse world
Accommodating diverse ethnicities, religions, languages, and values are inescapable features of the landscape of polities in the 21st century of the world.
Political leaders very often have suppressed brutally the cultural identities of minorities through state policies – through religious persecution, ethnic cleansing, and economic, social and political discrimination. Today, the indigenous people, ethnic minorities, and immigrants of various parts of the world are mobilizing to express their graveness for ethnic, religious, racial and cultural characteristics, demanding that their identities be acknowledged, appreciated and accommodated by wider society. Suffering from discrimination and
marginalization from social economic and political opportunities they are
demanding social justice. They feel that
their cultures are being swept away.
They demand to keep their diversity in a globalized world.
Why these movements are visible today ?
These are propelled and shaped by spread of democracy which is
giving movements more political grounds for protest and the advance of
globalization which is creating new network of alliance and presenting new
challenges.
Cultural liberty is a vital part of human development because of the
ability to choose ones identity. People
want the freedom to practice their religion openly to speak their language to
celebrate their ethnic or religious heritage without the fear of ridicule
punishment or diminished opportunities eg. Buddhists in Chittagong –
Bangladesh. These struggles over
cultural identify if left unmanaged or managed poorly can create instability
within the state and between them and this retards the country’s development.
Managing diversity and respecting cultural identities are not just
challenges for a few “multi-ethnic” states.
Almost no country is entirely homogeneous. Today rapid international migration is taking
place. Thus every country is a multi
cultural society containing ethnic, religious and linguistic groups that have
common bonds.
Thus cultural diversity will stay on and is still growing. States need to find ways of forging national
unity amidst diversity. The world ever
more interdependent economically cannot function unless people respect
diversity and build amity through common bonds of humanity. In this age of globalization, the demands for cultural recognition can no longer be ignored by any state or by the international community.
Reading List
1.
Schech Susanne and Jane Haggis
(2001) Culture and Development Blackwell Publishers – USA.
2.
Roland Robertsm (1992) Globalization
– Social Theory and Global Culture SAGE Publishers – London, India.
3.
Hettige S.T.(Edited) (1998) Globalization
Social Change and Youth – Published by German Cultural Institute – Colombo.
4.
Hasbullah S.H. and Barrie
Morrison (2004) Sri Lankan Society in the Era of Globalization SAGE –
Publications India – 1967.
5.
Stone E. (1967) Educational
Psychology – Methiren & Co. Ltd. – London.
6.
UNDP (2004) Human Resource
Development Report - Oxford Press
Humans' four phases with fire
| UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA |
The historical framework is key to planning for future fire risk and understanding the role of fire in natural ecosystems.
Image: Pleasureofart/iStockphoto
UTAS Professor David Bowman, from the UTAS School of Plant Science, is the lead author of a paper that offers a historical framework for considering the complex relationships humans have with fire.
The paper appears in the Journal of Biogeographyand was produced by a team of 18 international researchers working at the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (NCEAS) at the University of Santa Barbara. Prof Bowman said this framework is key to planning for future fire risk and understanding the role of fire in natural ecosystems. “There are often needless debates about whether or not fire has any place in flammable landscapes,” he said. “These debates are not helpful because of the intertwined relationships among humans, landscapes and fire throughout human history, which blur any distinction between natural and human set fires. “The value of this study is that it presents a critical assessment of the diversity of human uses of fire, from tamed landscape fire, to agricultural fire, to industrial fire.” Dr. Jennifer Balch is a Postdoctoral Associate at NCEAS and second author on the paper. “Human use and misuse of fire has been so prevalent in our evolutionary history, and the evolution of cultures, that we’ve forgotten how dominant a force fire really is,” she said. The researchers’ analysis recognises four ‘fire phases’:
All these phases still occur today. However, the problem is that the excessive combustion of fossil fuels is driving climate change.
“Our fossil-fuel dependent economy is yet another extension of our dependence on combustion. We have effectively put fire in a box,” Dr Balch said. “The result of massive dependence on this one use of fire may ultimately overwhelm human capacities to control landscape fire, given more extreme fire weather and more production of fuels.” The research highlights that understanding the relative influences of climate, human ignition sources, and cultural practices in particular environments is critical to craft sustainable fire management to protect human health, property, ecosystems and greenhouse gas pollution. “Understanding humankind’s relationship with fire is of great importance for all of us,” Prof Bowman said.
Editor's Note: Original news release can be found here.
|
Sunday, September 18, 2011
To The Worthy Recipient
“That very ancient science of the relationship with the Supreme is today told by Me to you because you are My devotee as well as My friend; therefore you can understand the transcendental mystery of this science.” (Lord Krishna, Bhagavad-gita, 4.3)
The Bhagavad-gita, the literature that stands out amongst all works of art due solely to its speaker and main subject matter, Lord Krishna, is so brilliant that it has been studied for centuries by scholar and devotee alike. The latter’s interest is understandable, as the loving propensity within every person is meant to be released in the most intense way possible. If a person is skilled at cooking, it would be a waste for them to not spend much time in the kitchen preparing elaborate dishes for friends, family and even customers at a restaurant. Similarly, if a person is skilled in explaining high concepts and the essence of life to others, if they were to avoid offering instruction, their talents would go to waste. Every living being shares the common trait of being a supreme lover of God, but only when consciousness advances to the point that the constitutional position is adopted can the full potential for the outward exchange of emotion and dedication be realized. Potential is great, provided that it is recognized as worthy of being tapped into. From hearing the Bhagavad-gita, the sincere soul acquires the tools necessary to make their existence worthwhile.
The fruit of an existence is the reward for remaining alive. Generally, the mentality is reversed, wherein the existing being looks for ways to continue their vitality. Work is built around this very concept. Go to the office early in the morning, spend upwards of forty hours per week there, and then come home to enjoy the results of your actions. If there wouldn’t be work, how would life’s necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter be procured? Above and beyond the necessities is enjoyment, pleasurable experiences that come after the essential functions for the day have been carried out.
But if we have an existence already, as that is what we know at the time of birth, why should our predominant thoughts be focused on maintaining that existence? Rather, shouldn’t the focus be on realizing the true fruit of our birth? If we have come into existence in this present body, there must be a reason for it. Similarly, after we exit the current form, there must be a place to go. The Vedas, the ancient scriptures of India, reveal that ananda, or bliss, is the reason for living. More specifically, that joy felt from the intimate association of the one person to whom everyone is intrinsically tied is the real goal of any existence, in any birth. The human form is considered the most auspicious because it carries with it a high potential for intelligence acquisition, which means that a human being has the best chance of even understanding the concepts of an existence and the purpose behind it.
Though the backdrop of the Bhagavad-gita is a battlefield where a war to end all wars was about to commence, the real purpose to the teachings within emanating from Lord Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, is to reveal how the search for ananda, the meaning to our existence, can take place. The troubled soul in this instance was Arjuna, the leading fighter for the Pandava family. When we hear that Arjuna was the most capable warrior, naturally some questions would arise. “If he was so powerful, why was he in trouble? If he could defeat anyone in battle, why would he ever feel dejected? Doesn’t sadness arise from the inability to protect one’s life or from the fear of losing one’s possessions? If he was so skilled, what was he afraid of?”
Arjuna’s concerns related to the bodily welfare of certain members of the opposing army, the Kauravas. Dronacharya and Bhishmadeva were the notable personalities that Arjuna did not want to harm. Dronacharya had taught Arjuna how to fight, so in this respect he was a guru, or spiritual master. The Sanskrit word “guru” literally means heavy, or those objects which carry gravity. The term “guru” typically refers to the spiritual guide, but it can also refer to general authority figures like parents and grandparents. Bhishmadeva was the grandfather of both the Pandavas and Kauravas, so how could Arjuna show disrespect to him by fighting with him to the death?
On the surface it appeared that Arjuna was afraid about winning and having to rule over a kingdom devoid of his closest family members and guides, but if we abstract the situation a little more, we’ll see that the issue boiled down to ananda. Arjuna was really asking how he could be happy in life. On the one side he had the option to fight and hopefully gain victory. On the other, he had the choice of losing by giving up. In either case, there wouldn’t be happiness, for in the first instance the kingdom would come at the cost of others’ lives. Arjuna had no attachment to regal comforts or the honor that comes from ruling over a kingdom. Therefore he didn’t even consider victory to be anything worth pursuing.
“People will always speak of your infamy, and for one who has been honored, dishonor is worse than death.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 2.34)
If he would give up, Arjuna would bring dishonor upon himself. Lord Krishna very cogently pointed out that for one who has been previously honored, dishonor is a punishment worse than death. We see that in the media world, celebrities and notable personalities are constantly being propped up for their exhibition of talent and skill in a particular field. Yet, if they should have a fall from grace, a momentary lapse of judgment, the same media relentlessly pounces on them to the point that their reputations are forever ruined. For one who has been previously honored with fame and praise, being dishonored is much worse. If an ordinary person should be dishonored, it is not that big a deal since they have not been previously held aloft. Arjuna was known the world over as an unbeatable fighter, for he had even won the favor ofLord Shiva after fighting with him.
Realizing the predicament and leaning towards the option of quitting, Arjuna had no choice but to put the matter to Krishna, who happened to be his charioteer at the time. The Bhagavad-gita thus involves a student asking the original spiritual master of the world how to gain the reward of one’s existence, how to find unending happiness. The discussion that followed revealed the most intimate secrets of spiritual life, some of which were known to the learned people of the time and some points of fact that had never been discussed anywhere else. The soul’s eternality, its position superior to material nature, its struggles through reincarnation, and what it needs to break free of the cycle of birth and death are revealed by Krishna Himself in His talk with Arjuna.
Because of the nature of the instruction and the succinct way in which it was presented, so many people have been enamored by the Bhagavad-gita. For those who take to spiritual life in the Vedic tradition, there are generally three paths available for finding ultimate success. One, karma, involves fruitive activity with the results of actions sacrificed for a higher cause. Another, jnana, studies the differences between matter and spirit to hopefully further the end of complete renunciation. There is another path involving meditation which has hints of both karma and jnana. The third path is known as bhakti, and it calls for dovetailing all of one’s actions with the interests of the Supreme Lord in His personal form.
Those who follow the path of knowledge acquisition are generally known as Vedantists. To them the Bhagavad-gita represents a scholarly work that explains Brahman, or the all-pervading Absolute Truth. Even scholars who are not technically Vedantists study the Bhagavad-gita for the high class concepts presented. Knowledge of the relevant subject matter is a prerequisite if one wants to participate in an intellectual discussion. For example, if we had a study group focused on Shakespearean literature, obviously people who have never read Shakespeare or who have no interest in poetry won’t be able to get anything out of the discussions.
In a similar manner, a prevalent view amongst spiritualists is that the common man cannot understand the Bhagavad-gita, or Vedanta in general. “Veda” refers to knowledge and “anta” means the end, or conclusion. Therefore Vedanta philosophy is the summit of knowledge, the philosophy that contains the final conclusions in life. All other truths are but derivatives of the supreme truths handed down by the great Vedic seers. “Vedanta is not meant for just any person. There must be renunciation and strict austerity for one to understand the highest truths of life.”
This raises an interesting question, however. If the Bhagavad-gita, considered one of the most important spiritual treatises in history, is meant only for high class intellectuals, how come the person receiving the knowledge directly from the person speaking it wasn’t even close to being part of the intelligentsia? The Vedic system of societal maintenance is known as varnashrama-dharma, and it calls for divisions of life and occupational duties based on a person’s inherent qualities relating to their body type. The highest division is known as the brahmana, which can be likened to a priestly order or an intelligentsia. The brahmanas are the teachers, and their title indicates that they are to know Brahman, or the Absolute Truth. An unintelligent person sees differences based on body types, taking one living entity to be superior and another to be inferior simply off of their outward features. Yet the wise know that every spiritual spark is Brahman and thus constitutionally the same in quality.
“That knowledge by which one undivided spiritual nature is seen in all existences, undivided in the divided, is knowledge in the mode of goodness.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 18.20)
The brahmana sees that there is oneness shared amongst the divided because of the unity in spiritual makeup. This vision is very difficult to acquire, hence the brahmanas are given top billing in society; they are the respected teachers. Arjuna was part of the second order, the administrator/warrior class. They are hardly considered the most intelligent, as fighting is based off of bodily designations. War can only take place when one group thinks that land belongs to them and that their family members are more important than other sets of individuals. Those with the understanding of Brahman have no need to usurp others’ property, instigate meaningless fights, or unnecessarily kill any other life.
If Arjuna was part of a class driven by the mode of passion, which is the second class type of activity, how could he receive the sublime wisdom of Vedanta presented by Shri Krishna, who is the fountainhead of all Vedic knowledge? The answer, not surprisingly, is given in the Gita itself, where Krishna states that Arjuna is receiving the highest wisdom because he is a devotee; he is not envious of God. The Vedantist may be very learned, but if he is after becoming one with God, denying His existence by saying that He is impersonal, or even usurping the Lord’s authority, he will never be able to understand the Bhagavad-gita.
Not only the Bhagavad-gita, but every important Vedic literature is meant to be understood by the devotees. The fruit of our existence is not simply the removal of distress. If one day we hear an annoying car alarm going off outside and the next day we don’t, has our life’s mission been fulfilled? Even in the absence of distress, the soul needs an active engagement, a set of activities that will provide happiness. Naturally, those things which correspond to the properties of spirit will bring the highest blissful feelings. Lord Krishna is the object of sacrifice and worship, so anyone who stays connected with Him will find the ananda they have been searching after for so many lifetimes. Arjuna surrendered unto the Lord and thus slashed away his bewilderment. He found happiness from neither renunciation nor attachment, but rather from following his heart connected with the Supreme Lord. Those who understand the dealings of Arjuna and Krishna in this light will be similarly benefitted.
In Closing:
Of the Lord, Arjuna was a great devotee,
Thus divine vision of Krishna did he see,
More than that, eternal wisdom he received,
For with his friendship the Lord was pleased.
Only with devotion can one comprehend,
Truths of Vedas, on nothing else does this depend.
Following karma we can find temporary reward,
With renunciation and study we get bored.
Only with bhakti we find what we need,
To have association with God does our heart bleed.
In society brahmanas are the highest class,
Through study, illusion of duality they surpass.
Yet Arjuna was a warrior by trade,
In thought, word or deed, never Krishna he betrayed.
Thus for receiving Gita’s message of love he was deserving,
Their conversation with proper mood are our ears meant for hearing.
Lasers Could Be Used to Detect Roadside Bombs
The detection of IEDs in the field is extremely important and challenging because the environment introduces a large number of chemical compounds that mask the select few molecules that one is trying to detect, Dantus said.The laser, which has comparable output to a simple presentation pointer, potentially has the sensitivity and selectivity to canvas large areas and detect improvised explosive devices -- weapons that account for around 60 percent of coalition soldiers' deaths. Marcos Dantus, chemistry professor and founder of BioPhotonic Solutions, led the team and has published the results in the current issue of Applied Physics Letters.
"Having molecular structure sensitivity is critical for identifying explosives and avoiding unnecessary evacuation of buildings and closing roads due to false alarms," he said.
Since IEDs can be found in populated areas, the methods to detect these weapons must be nondestructive. They also must be able to distinguish explosives from vast arrays of similar compounds that can be found in urban environments. Dantus' latest laser can make these distinctions even for quantities as small as a fraction of a billionth of a gram.
The laser beam combines short pulses that kick the molecules and make them vibrate, as well as long pulses that are used to "listen" and identify the different "chords." The chords include different vibrational frequencies that uniquely identify every molecule, much like a fingerprint. The high-sensitivity laser can work in tandem with cameras and allows users to scan questionable areas from a safe distance.
"The laser and the method we've developed were originally intended for microscopes, but we were able to adapt and broaden its use to demonstrate its effectiveness for standoff detection of explosives," said Dantus, who hopes to net additional funding to take this laser from the lab and into the field.
This research is funded in part by the Department of Homeland Security. BioPhotonic Solutions is a high-tech company Dantus launched in 2003 to commercialize technology invented in a spinoff from his research group at MSU
Mother Tongue Comes from Your Prehistoric Father man rather than women
New research suggests that language change among our prehistoric ancestors came about via the arrival of immigrant men -- rather than women -- into new settlements. (Credit: © TheStockCube / Fotolia)
Science Daily — Language change among our prehistoric ancestors came about via the arrival of immigrant men -- rather than women -- into new settlements, according to new research.
They studied the instances of genetic markers (the male Y chromosome and female mtDNA) from several thousand individuals in communities around the world that seem to show the emergence globally of sex-specific transmission of language.The claim is made by two University of Cambridge academics, Peter Forster and Colin Renfrew, in a report to be published in Science on September 9.
From Scandinavian Vikings who ferried kidnapped British women to Iceland -- to African, Indian and Polynesian tribes, a pattern has emerged which appears to show that the arrival of men to particular geographic locations -- through either agricultural dispersal or the arrival of military forces -- can have a significant impact on what language is spoken there.
Professor Renfrew said: "It may be that during colonisation episodes by emigrating agriculturalists, men generally outnumber women in the pioneering groups and take wives from the local community.
"When the parents have different linguistic backgrounds, it may often be the language of the father which is dominant within the family group."
Dr Forster, of Murray Edwards College, also pointed to the fact that men have a greater variance in offspring than women -- they are more likely to father children with different mothers than vice versa. This has been recorded both in prehistoric tribes such as the 19th and 20th century Polar Eskimos from Greenland and in historic figures like Genghis Khan, who is believed to have fathered hundreds of children.
Indeed, his Y chromosome is carried by 0.5 per cent of the world's male population today.
Perhaps the most striking example of sex-biased language change, however, comes from a genetic study on the prehistoric encounter of expanding Polynesians with resident Melanesians in New Guinea and the neighbouring Admiralty Islands. The New Guinean coast contains pockets of Polynesian-speaking areas separated by Melanesian areas. The Polynesian mtDNA level (40-50%) is similar in these areas regardless of language, whereas the Y chromosome correlates strongly with the presence of Polynesian languages.
Past studies have shown similar findings in the Indian subcontinent among the speakers of Tibeto-Burman and among the immigrant Indo-European languages as opposed to indigenous Dravidian languages.
In the Americas, too, language replacement in the course of postulated farming dispersal has also been found to correlate for the Uto-Aztecan language family.
Added Forster: "Whether in European, Indian, Chinese or other languages, the expression 'mother tongue' and its concept is firmly embedded in popular imagination -- perhaps this is the reason why for so many years the role of fathers, or more likely, specific groups of successful males, in determining prehistoric language switches has not been recognised by geneticists."
"Prehistoric women may have more readily adopted the language of immigrant males, particularly if these newcomers brought with them military prowess or a perceived higher status associated with farming or metalworking.
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)