Clue as to Why Alcohol Is Addicting: Scientists Show That Drinking Releases Brain Endorphins

 New research shows that drinking alcohol leads to the release of endorphins in areas of the brain that produce feelings of pleasure and reward. (Credit: iStockphoto)

Science  Daily  — Drinking alcohol leads to the release of endorphins in areas of the brain that produce feelings of pleasure and reward, according to a study led by researchers at the Ernest Gallo Clinic and Research Center at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF).

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The finding marks the first time that endorphin release in the nucleus accumbens and orbitofrontal cortex in response to alcohol consumption has been directly observed in humans.

Endorphins are small proteins with opiate-like effects that are produced naturally in the brain.

"This is something that we've speculated about for 30 years, based on animal studies, but haven't observed in humans until now," said lead author Jennifer Mitchell, PhD, clinical project director at the Gallo Center and an adjunct assistant professor of neurology at UCSF. "It provides the first direct evidence of how alcohol makes people feel good."

The discovery of the precise locations in the brain where endorphins are released provides a possible target for the development of more effective drugs for the treatment of alcohol abuse, said senior author Howard L. Fields, MD, PhD, a professor of neurology and Endowed Chair in Pharmacology of Addiction in Neurology at UCSF and director of human clinical research at the Gallo Center.

The study appears on January 11, 2012, in Science Translational Medicine.

The researchers used positron emission tomography, or PET imaging, to observe the immediate effects of alcohol in the brains of 13 heavy drinkers and 12 matched "control" subjects who were not heavy drinkers.

In all of the subjects, alcohol intake led to a release of endorphins. And, in all of the subjects, the more endorphins released in the nucleus accumbens, the greater the feelings of pleasure reported by each drinker.

In addition, the more endorphins released in the orbitofrontal cortex, the greater the feelings of intoxication in the heavy drinkers, but not in the control subjects.

"This indicates that the brains of heavy or problem drinkers are changed in a way that makes them more likely to find alcohol pleasant, and may be a clue to how problem drinking develops in the first place," said Mitchell. "That greater feeling of reward might cause them to drink too much."

Results Suggest Possible Approach to Treat Alcohol Abuse

Before drinking, the subjects were given injections of radioactively tagged carfentanil, an opiate-like drug that selectively binds to sites in the brain called opioid receptors, where endorphins also bind. As the radioactive carfentanil was bound and emitted radiation, the receptor sites "lit up" on PET imaging, allowing the researchers to map their exact locations.

The subjects were then each given a drink of alcohol, followed by a second injection of radioactive carfentanil, and scanned again with PET imaging. As the natural endorphins released by drinking were bound to the opioid receptor sites, they prevented the carfentanil from being bound. By comparing areas of radioactivity in the first and second PET images, the researchers were able to map the exact locations -- areas of lower radioactivity -- where endorphins were released in response to drinking.

The researchers found that endorphins released in response to drinking bind to a specific type of opioid receptor, the Mu receptor.

This result suggests a possible approach to improving the efficacy of treatment for alcohol abuse through the design of better medications than naltrexone, said Fields, who collaborated with Mitchell in the design and analysis of the study.

Fields explained that naltrexone, which prevents binding at opioid receptor sites, is not widely accepted as a treatment for alcohol dependence -- "not because it isn't effective at reducing drinking, but because some people stop taking it because they don't like the way it makes them feel," he said.

"Naltrexone blocks more than one opioid receptor, and we need to know which blocking action reduces drinking and which causes the unwanted side effects," he said. "If we better understand how endorphins control drinking, we will have a better chance of creating more targeted therapies for substance addiction. This paper is a significant step in that direction because it specifically implicates the Mu opioid receptor in alcohol reward in humans."

Co-authors of the study are James P. O'Neill and Mustafa Janabi of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and Shawn M. Marks and William J. Jagust, MD, of LBL and the University of California, Berkeley.

The study was supported by funds from the Department of Defense and by State of California Funds for Research on Drug and Alcohol Abuse.

Evolution Is Written All Over Your Face

                Primates from Central and South America. (Credit: Image courtesy of University of California - Los Angeles)

Science Daily  — Why are the faces of primates so dramatically different from one another?

UCLA biologists working as "evolutionary detectives" studied the faces of 129 adult male primates from Central and South America, and they offer some answers in research published Jan. 11, in the early online edition of the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. The faces they studied evolved over at least 24 million years, they report.

"If you look at New World primates, you're immediately struck by the rich diversity of faces," said Michael Alfaro, a UCLA associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology and the senior author of the study. "You see bright red faces, moustaches, hair tufts and much more. There are unanswered questions about how faces evolve and what factors explain the evolution of facial features. We're very visually oriented, and we get a lot of information from the face."

Some of theprimate species studied are solitary, while others live in groups that can include dozens or even hundreds of others.

The life scientists divided each face into 14 regions; coded the color of each part, including the hair and skin; studied the patterns and anatomy of the faces; and gave each a "facial complexity" score. They studied how the complexity of primate faces evolved over time and examined the primates' social systems. To assess how facial colors are related to physical environments, they analyzed environmental variables, using the longitude and latitude of primates' habitats as a proxy for sun exposure and temperature. They also used statistical methods to analyze the evolutionary history of the primate groups and when they diverged from one another.

"We found very strong support for the idea that as species live in larger groups, their faces become more simple, more plain," said lead author Sharlene Santana, a UCLA postdoctoral scholar in ecology and evolutionary biology and a postdoctoral fellow with UCLA's Institute for Society and Genetics. "We think that is related to their ability to communicate using facial expressions. A face that is more plain could allow the primate to convey expressions more easily.

"Humans have pretty bare faces, which may allow us to see facial expressions more easily than if, for example, we had many colors in our faces."

The researchers' finding that faces are more simple in larger groups came as a surprise.

"Initially, we thought it might be the opposite," Santana said. "You might expect that in larger groups, faces would vary more and have more complex parts that would allow one individual to identify any member of that group. That is not what we found. Species that live in larger groups live in closer proximity to one another and tend to use facial expressions more than species in smaller groups that are more spread out. Being in closer proximity puts a stronger pressure on using facial expressions."

"This finding suggests that facial expressions are increasingly important in large groups," said co-author Jessica Lynch Alfaro, associate director of the UCLA Institute for Society and Genetics. "If you're highly social, then facial expressions matter more than having a highly complex pattern on your face. "

The evolutionary biologists also found that when primates live in environment with more species that are closely related, their faces are more complex, regardless of their group size. This finding is consistent with their need to recognize individuals of other closely related species that live in the same habitat to avoid interbreeding, Santana said.

Santana, Lynch Alfaro and Alfaro present the first quantitative evidence linking social behavior to the evolution of facial diversity and complexity in primates, and they also show that ecology controls aspects of facial patterns.

As species live closer to the equator, the skin and hair around their eyes get darker, the biologists report. They also found that regions of the face around the nose and mouth get darker when species live in humid environments and denser forests and that facial hair gets longer as species live farther from the equator and the climate gets colder, which may be related to regulating body temperature.

"This is a good start toward understanding facial diversity," Alfaro said. "There was not a good idea before about what aspects of faces were shaped by which evolutionary pressure. Sharlene [Santana] has been able to say what social complexity, social behavior and ecology are doing to faces."

In the future, Santana, Lynch Alfaro and Alfaro may use computer facial-recognition software to help quantify the faces in a more sophisticated way. They also plan to study the faces of carnivores, including big cats.

Previous studies, they noted, have found that primate species with moustaches and beards (such as No. 11 and No. 9 in the accompanying image) tend to look poker-faced; they don't move their faces much when they communicate, compared with other species (such as No. 4).

Alfaro praised Santana's ability to answer some of these difficult evolutionary questions.

"Sharlene has tested ideas that have been virtually impossible to test before," he said. "She has found a clever way to implicate the degree of sociality as contributing to the diversity of faces. Social behavior explains some aspects of facial diversity."

Santana also devised a way to test a theory that has been in the biological literature for decades but had never been tested before. As a lineage diverges and species accumulate, a series of changes in facial coloration and body coloration emerges. The theory she was able to test suggests that once a species evolves to have a certain color, such as hair color, the change is irreversible and it cannot evolve back to a previous color in its lineage. Santana found this theory to be wrong.

"The idea in biology that evolutionary change is irreversible is rejected very strongly by our data," Alfaro said.

Lessons for human faces?

Does the study have implications for the evolution of human faces?

The findings do suggest, Alfaro said, that an important factor in shaping human faces is the premium on making unambiguous facial expressions.

"Humans don't have all these elaborate facial ornamentations, but we do have the ability to communicate visually with facial expressions," Alfaro said. "Does reduced coloration complexity create a blank palate for visual expressions that can be conveyed more easily? That is an idea we are testing."

Santana's research is funded by fellowships from the National Science Foundation and UCLA's Institute for Society and Genetics.

Researchers Develop New Strategy to Deliver Chemotherapy to Prostate Cancer Cells

o by Biomechanism 

Ligand-nanoparticle components (in green) targeting and binding to cells. Photo: Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH)

Honing chemotherapy delivery to cancer cells is a challenge for many researchers. Getting the cancer cells to take the chemotherapy “bait” is a greater challenge. But perhaps such a challenge has not been met with greater success than by the nanotechnology research team of Omid Farokhzad, MD, Brigham and Women’s Hospital (BWH) Department of Anesthesiology Perioperative and Pain Medicine and Research.

In their latest study with researchers from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Massachusetts General Hospital, the BWH team created a drug delivery system that is able to effectively deliver a tremendous amount of chemotherapeutic drugs to prostate cancer cells.

The study was electronically published in the January 3, 2012 issue of ACS Nano. Co

The process involved is akin to building and equipping a car with the finest features, adding a passenger (in this case the cancer drug), and sending it off to its destination (in this case the cancer cell).

To design the “vehicle,” researchers used a selection strategy developed by Farokhzad’s team that allowed them to essentially select for ligands (molecules that bind to the cell surface) that could specifically target prostate cancer cells. The researchers then attached nanoparticles containing chemotherapy, in this case docetaxel, to these hand-picked ligands.

To understand Farokhzad’s selection strategy, one must understand ligand behavior. While most ligands mainly have the ability to bind to cells, the strategy of Farokhzad and his colleagues allowed them to select specific ligands that were not only able to bind to prostate cancer cells, but also possessed two other important features: 1) they were smart enough to distinguish between cancer and non-cancer cells and 2) they were designed to be swallowed by cancer cells.

“Most ligands are engulfed by cells, but not efficiently,” said Farokhzad. “We designed one that is intended to be engulfed.”

Moreover, the ability for a ligand to intentionally be engulfed by a cell is crucial in drug delivery since it enables a significant amount of drug to enter the cancer cell, as opposed to remaining outside on the cell surface. This is a more effective method for cancer therapy.

Another important aspect of this drug delivery design is that these ligand-nanoparticle components are able to interact with multiple cancer markers (antigens) on the cell surface. Unlike other drug delivery systems, this makes it versatile and potentially more broadly applicable.

According to the study’s lead author, Zeyu Xiao, PhD, a researcher in the BWH Laboratory of Nanomedicine and Biomaterials, current strategies for targeting nanoparticles for cancer therapy rely on combining nanoparticles with ligands that can target well-known cancer markers. Such strategies can be difficult to execute since most cancer cells do not have identifiable cell surface markers to distinguish themselves from normal cells.

“In this study, we developed a unique strategy that enables the nanoparticles to specifically target and efficiently be engulfed into any desired types and sub-types of cancer cells, even if their cancer markers are unknown,” said Xiao. “Our strategy simplifies the development process of targeted nanoparticles and broadens their applications in cancer therapy.”

________________

This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health, the David Koch-Prostate Cancer Foundation, and the USA Department of Defense Prostate Cancer Research Program. 

Researchers discover novel anti-viral immune pathway in the mosquito

 by Biomechanism 

As mosquito-borne viral diseases like West Nile fever, dengue fever, and chikungunya fever spread rapidly around the globe, scientists at Virginia Tech are working to understand the mosquito’s immune system and how the viral pathogens that cause these diseases are able to overcome it to be transmitted to human and animal hosts.

In nearly every part of the world, humans and animals experience high levels of morbidity and mortality after being bitten by mosquitoes infected with viruses. More than 100 different viruses transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods like mosquitoes have been associated with human or animal disease.

Two especially prolific vectors are the yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) and the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus), which is easy to spot because of its striped patterning. Although native to Africa and Asia, these insects can spread through the Western world by hitching rides in used tyres, which trap water to create a perfect breeding site.

Virginia Tech researchers have identified a novel anti-viral pathway in the immune system of culicine mosquitoes, the insect family to which both vectors belong. Kevin Myles and Zach Adelman, both associate professors of entomology in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, lead the research, which is published in Jan . 5 PLoS Pathogens article, “Production of Virus-Derived Ping-Pong-Dependent piRNA-like Small RNAs in the Mosquito Soma,” by Elaine M. Morazzani and Michael R. Wiley, PhD students in entomology; Marta G. Murreddu, research associate in entomology; and Adelman; and Myles.

“We have previously shown that an antiviral response directed by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) is present in culicine mosquito vectors. However, we show here that another class of virus-derived small RNAS, exhibiting many similarities with ping-pong-dependent piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), is also produced in the soma of culicine mosquitoes,” the authors explain. Myles, Adelman, and co-workers made use of a technique called next-generation sequencing to aid in their discovery.

The newly discovered antiviral pathway appears to act redundantly to the previously described small interfering RNA (siRNA) pathway, indicating a robust immune system, said Myles. Thus, understanding how viruses get around the mosquito’s dual antiviral responses poses an increasingly interesting challenge to scientists.

“In the case of mosquito-borne pathogens, our health depends as much on the mosquito’s immune response as it does on our own immune response, yet surprisingly little is known about the immune system of the mosquito,” Myles said.

________

After coming to Virginia Tech in 2005, Myles and Adelman built a research program devoted to work in this sub-field. They are members of Virginia Tech’s Vector-Borne Disease Research Group and affiliated faculty members in the Fralin Life Science Institute. The mission of the Vector-Borne Disease Research Group is to elucidate the fundamental mechanisms involved in the transmission and pathogenesis of vector-borne infectious organisms, to deepen understanding of the nature of infectious disease, and to lead the search for novel approaches to disease mitigation.

The article is online at http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1002470

New AIDS Vaccine Tested In Rwanda

Posted by Magnifique MIGISHA 

Minister of Health, Dr Agnes Binagwaho, confirmed that new HIV Vaccines are currently in trial and have kicked off in Rwanda. 

Researchers from Canada started the first phase of the clinical trials on 25 people with no infection.

This research is sponsored by The International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, and in Rwanda, it is implemented by San Francisco Project.

Dr Binagwaho told local media IGIHE.com via Twitter that this AIDS vaccine has been started to be tried in Rwanda.

“Yes, we have a trial that has shown the best adherence of participants. Sponsored by The International AIDS Vaccine Initiative and implemented by PSF,” Binagwaho noted.

Two categories of vaccines are in tested in Rwanda; those are HIV MAG-IL12 and Ad35-GRIN-ENV in one trial.

The Press reports indicate that the vaccine is unique in that it uses a dead HIV-1 virus similar to vaccines used against polio and influenza and is genetically engineered to be non-pathogenic, meaning it won’t cause HIV in recipients.

Binagwaho added that Rwanda work hand in hand with partners to serve global science and global fight against.

“One benefit of the trial is having financial access to it when it is available; everyone in the world has to contribute at his/her level. This is how we would have full access,” said the Minister of Health.

The International AIDS Vaccine Initiative works with individuals and organizations in developing countries to conduct epidemiological studies, social-science research, educational initiatives, voluntary counseling and testing consultations, and capacity-building to ensure transparent and effective clinical trial processes.

Partners include the Kenya AIDS Vaccine Initiative, Rwanda’s Project San Francisco, and the Uganda Virus Research Institute.

Seventy five people are in test where each country has 25 people.

Story by Magnifique Migisha, a Journalist from Rwanda, East Africa.

Predators are picky eaters too

THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

Predatory animals choose their food on the basis of its nutritional value rather than just overall calorie content. Image: urjsa, Flickr CC-licensed University researchers have debunked the dogma that predators aren't picky eaters, with a new study finding predator animals that are given a choice of foods will select a diet that maximises their chances of reproducing. The researchers, including Professor Stephen Simpson, an internationally renowned biologist from the University of Sydney, have shown for the first time that predatory animals choose their food on the basis of its nutritional value rather than just overall calorie content. The findings, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B on Wednesday 11 January, are based on a study of the ground beetle, Anchomenus dorsalis, a garden insect that feasts on slugs, aphids, moths, beetle larvae and ants. The international team of scientists from the University of Sydney, the universities of Exeter and Oxford in the UK, Aarhus University in Denmark and Massey University in New Zealand, collected female beetles from the wild and split them into two groups in the laboratory. Half of the beetles were offered a choice of foods - some that were high in protein and some that were high in fat. The other half were not given a choice of foods: some of these beetles were only given high protein food, while the rest were just given high fat foods. The beetles that were given a choice of foods ate the proportions of protein and fat that were optimal for producing healthy eggs. These beetles produced more eggs than the other beetles in the study that had no choice of foods. "Contrary to standard dogma, predators do balance their diet and show nutritional wisdom," said Professor Simpson, an ARC Laureate Fellow in the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Sydney and the paper's senior author. "Although we previously demonstrated this characteristic in spiders, predatory beetles, fish, mink and cats, this is the first study to show the adaptive reasons and benefits of diet selection," Professor Simpson said. The finding could have implications for predator killing and eating patterns in particular environments, with important consequences for food webs and ecological communities, said Professor Simpson. "Immediately after winter hibernation, when both predators and the prey are likely to have depleted fat stores, predators are likely to kill and eat more prey than if the prey were rich in fats. Conversely, if some prey species contain a higher concentration of fats than is optimal for the predator, then predators should switch their focus towards more protein-rich prey species." Previous research on insects has shown that herbivores such as butterfly larvae and grasshoppers, and omnivores such as fruit flies and crickets, select food to give them a balanced diet. This is the first research to show that predators also select food on the basis of nutritional value. Lead researcher Dr Kim Jensen of the University of Exeter said: "At a time of year when many of us are focused on healthy eating, it is interesting to see that predators are also selective about what they eat. "Biologists have previously assumed that predators cannot afford to be fussy and are simply focused on getting the right quantity of food, rather than quality. We show for the first time that they do actually select the foods that will give them the right balance of nutrients." Editor's Note: Original news release can be found here.

Hotter homes produce smarter babies

THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

A hotter home appears to produce babies with better cognitive abilities - but before you turn up the home heater to make your baby brainier, the research was conducted on the Australian lizard Bassiana duperreyi by researchers from the University of Sydney. Many traits in young reptiles are determined by the temperature of the nest, so Joshua Amiel, a PhD student in the School of Biological Sciences, and his supervisor, Professor Rick Shine, looked at how incubation temperature would affect the learning performance of these lizards. Published in the UK's Royal Society journal Biology Letters, the research found that lizard eggs incubated at higher temperatures resulted in baby lizards with enhanced learning performance. "Reptiles are interesting because their genes aren't the only factor that affect basic features of their biology. We know that the temperature of reptile nests influences the sex, body size, body shape and locomotor performance of hatchlings," Joshua Amiel said. "We wanted to see whether the temperature an egg is incubated at influences the hatchling lizard's cognitive skills." Previous studies on how features of the reptile nest environment, such as temperature or dampness, affect hatchling traits have focused on body features that are easier to measure. However, there has not been much research on how the nest environment affects behavioural traits, such as learning ability. "Learning ability is important for all animals, because it allows them to respond to changing environmental conditions, which introduces novel challenges," he said. "We used the native Australian lizard, Bassiana duperreyi, to test whether incubation temperature of the eggs affected the hatchling's ability to learn the location of a safe retreat site during a simulated predator attack. We selected the learning task focused on response to a predator, because being able to escape from a predator is directly relevant to an individual lizard's survival and therefore its 'fitness' in evolutionary biology terms." The lizard eggs were incubated in either hot conditions of 22°C with daily variation of 7.5°C above and below that point, or cold conditions of 16°C with daily variation of 7.5°C above and below that point, which replicates temperature variation in natural nests located in colder higher elevations or warmer lower elevations. Once lizards had hatched from the eggs, they were weighed and various measurements were taken. They were tested for learning ability between one and four months of age. "Our learning test offered each lizard two possible shelters to escape to after being stimulated to run by being touched on the tail with a paintbrush. Each lizard could choose between two inverted plastic flower-pot trays - one offered a successful escape, while the other had a plastic cover that stopped the lizard from entering the flower-pot," Joshua Amiel said. "Each lizard was trialed four times per day over four days, so we could see how quickly they learnt where the best escape spot was. Between each trial, we mixed up the sand in the experimental containers to ensure our lizards weren't using chemical cues to locate the open flower-pot, which was always in the same place. "Overall, hot-incubated lizards achieved higher learning scores than the cold-incubated lizards, so our study adds learning ability to a growing list of traits that incubation temperature can modify in reptiles during early development." The learning ability differences caused by incubation temperature could result from differences in hormone levels or receptors, which may induce structural variation in parts of the brain that control behaviours such as learning. "What is significant, is that factors such as climate change or where a mother lizard chooses to make a nest affect the ability of hatchling reptiles to learn novel tasks. "Greater learning ability can have a huge impact on the lizard's chances for survival and reproduction, so our study is the beginning of some interesting work on the influence of incubation temperature on cognitive capacity." Editor's Note: Original news release can be found here.

'More planets than stars' in galaxy

UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA

New research has found planets around stars are the rule rather than the exception – there are more planets in the Galaxy than there are stars. An international team which includes five astronomers from the University of Tasmania has made the discovery. The team searched for exoplanets (planets outside the Solar System) using gravitational microlensing, a little-known technique for planet-finding. Gravitational microlensing can detect planets over a much wider range of masses and distances from their parent stars (stars that give the planets light and warmth) than other methods. In six years of observations, the Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork (PLANET) and the Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment (OGLE) searches discovered three exoplanets on their own and seven more in co-operation with other survey teams.  Although the number of planets that were detected is small, statistical analysis of the microlensing process shows that this is a truly impressive haul. To detect these planets, astronomers have either hit a jackpot despite huge odds against them, or planets are so abundant in the Galaxy that their discovery is almost inevitable. Dr Arnaud Cassan, from the Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, is lead author of the research paper titled One or more bound planets per Milky Way star from microlensing observations. He said it was also discovered that lighter planets, such as super Earths (planets with mass 3-10 times the mass of the Earth) or those of about Neptune size, are much more common than heavier ones. Dr Daniel Kubas, co-lead author of the paper, said we used to think Earth was at the centre of the Universe and planets were rare. “But now it seems that there are literally billions of planets with masses similar to Earth orbiting stars in the Milky Way,” he said. Dr John Greenhill, from the UTAS School of Maths and Physics, was the UTAS team leader on the research project. "Our analysis shows that Earth-sized and smaller planets are even more common than suspected,” said Dr Greenhill. “It seems very likely that there are more Earth-mass planets than stars in our galaxy.” The UTAS observations used the Mt Canopus one-metre telescope in the Meehan Ranges near Hobart. The Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris and several other institutions around the world helped make the observations. The research paper, One or more bound planets per Milky Way star from microlensing observations, has appeared in the journal Nature. Editor's Note: Original news release can be found here.

Drought alarm found in plants

ARC CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE IN PLANT ENERGY BIOLOGY

Scientists have found a signal in plants which may act as a drought alarm, allowing them to adapt to drought conditions. Image: amphotora/iStockphoto Scientists have found a signal in plants which may act as a drought alarm, allowing them to adapt to drought conditions. The signal was discovered while trying to understand how different parts of the cell "talk" to each other under drought conditions in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, a relative of canola. Inside every animal and plant cell there are a series of connected pathways, like the production lines of a factory. For it to work efficiently, each department must be able to communicate product shortages, adverse conditions or breakdowns. In cells, the production lines, or pathways, are regulated by chemical signals and inputs, which can come from many sources. Scientists have proposed for a while that chemical signals must be sent by a particular "plant department", or organelle, to the nucleus - the cell's control centre - for plants to become aware of and adapt to harsh conditions. "The chloroplast is the plant organelle that converts light into food. The nucleus directs assembly and function of the chloroplast and this requires cross-talk between the two", Dr Estavillo said. Despite these signals being proposed, they have been greatly debated and the signalling mechanisms for "talk" remain unclear. But now, research on a mutant variety of Arabidopsis has lead to the discovery of a signal to the nucleus which is important in the plant response to drought. This research was lead by Dr Gonzalo Estavillo and Prof. Barry Pogson at the Australian National University node of the ARC Centre for Excellence in Plant Energy Biology (Estavillo et al. (2011) The Plant Cell). The Arabidopsis mutant plant lacked a protein called SAL1, which breaks down a small molecule further down the production line called "PAP". As the protein was absent, the production line was broken, so "PAP", which is usually found in the chloroplast, ended up building up in the nucleus. Surprisingly, this became a kind of drought alarm, telling the plant to save water. Consequently these mutant plants survived 50% longer in drought conditions. More importantly, the researchers found that normal plants also accumulated PAP during drought conditions and that the PAP molecule was able to move between the chloroplast and the nucleus. "We intend to fully investigate the potential of this remarkable PAP signal", says Dr Estavillo. "It's a great time to be a plant scientist. We have the technology to decipher tiny and crucial molecular pathways in cells and use this knowledge to improve plant breeding and genetics. After all, plants are our food and fuel future." Editor's Note: Original news release can be found here.

Powertrekk - How it works

Something you should read! Baby Carrots

Baby Carrots: The following is information from a farmer who grows and packages  Carrots for IGA, METRO, LOBLAWS, etc. The small cocktail (baby) carrots you buy in small plastic bags are  Made using the larger crooked or deformed carrots which are put Through a machine which cuts and shapes them into cocktail carrots - Most people probably know this already. What you may not know and should know is the following: Once the carrots are cut and shaped into cocktail carrots they  Are dipped in a solution of water and chlorine in order to preserve  Them (this is the same chlorine used in your pool). Since they do not have their skin or natural protective covering, They give them a higher dose of chlorine. You will notice that once you keep these carrots in your refrigerator  For a few days, a white covering will form on the carrots. This is the  Chlorine which resurfaces. At what cost do we put our health at risk  To have esthetically pleasing vegetables? Chlorine is a very well-known carcinogen, which causes Cancer.  I thought this was worth passing on. Pass it on to as many people  As possible in hopes of informing them where these carrots come  From and how they are processed. I used to buy those baby carrots for vegetable dips. I know that  I will never buy them again!!!! Confirmed by Snopes:

 

THREE FINANCIAL TIPS THAT EVERY WOMAN SHOULD KNOW

The one person you can always depend on for financial security is yourself. So do it. Make yourself financially secure. This article outlines 3 essential tips that every woman should know and follow. Get the tips here!

INC recommends…

In a recent Inc. meeting of women business owners in New York, the participants deflected any attempt to get them to say that a woman’s way of running a business was better or worse than a man’s way. But there was one subject on which they didn’t mind admitting they felt a bit behind their male counterparts: Money.

1.  Set specific financial goals (use numbers!) and write them down.Whether it is getting to zero debt by 2013, or building a $1million house by 2015, setting written goals is the first step in getting there.  Only when you know the number you’re aiming for can you calculating the saving required.  Odds are, you have more goals than you can afford all at once, so you have to set priorities, based on how much time you have to reach the goal and how important it is to you.

2a.      Don’t get divorced.  2b. Don’t raise slackers. Families can be black holes for money. After many years of helping people manage their money, I’ve come to accept one unhappy truth: Everyone has hang-ups about money.  You may not have a clear idea how your husband or partner feels about money, and the ignorance is likely mutual. Talk to your spouse—and to your kids—about money decisions and the money mistakes you made. Don’t let money drive you into those two most expensive of family financial disasters: divorce and financial dependent children.

3.      Save like a man. Or better than a man. Statistics show that women save only half of what men save toward retirement. However since you’re likely to live longer than the average man, you actually need to save more, approximately 20% more.  A good rule-of-thumb saving target is 12% of a woman’s income vs. 10% for men.

Get more great tips at INC!