Europe's forgotten 'religion'

 Other Sciences / Social Sciences 

Hundreds of millions of people in Europe alone are “non-religious”, but non-religion remains an understudied field. To mark the launch of a new journal on the subject, associate editor Lois Lee discusses its significance and its role in defining the identities of the “silent majority” in Europe.

Although it is often reduced to its most visible form – rationalist atheism – “non-religion” describes a range of perspectives. More widely understood, the term refers to the positions, perspectives and practices of vast numbers of people in Europe and elsewhere. Understanding their views should be essential to understanding European cultures and diversity, but they are only just beginning to be treated as such.

Statistics give some sense of the scale of the problem: In famously “secular” countries, like Sweden, Norway and Denmark, over 70% of the population are non-religious. In many other countries, however, it is barely less – over 60% in Hungary, the Netherlands, Britain and others. Even in less secularised Catholic countries, non-religion is statistically significant, with 11% in Poland, 30% in Italy and 46% in Portugal.

This is not a reflection of levels of atheism in these countries – in fact the numbers who classify themselves as atheist remain marginal. “Non-religion”, however, can be understood in a broader sense as meaning atheism, agnosticism, non-religious secularism, or simply religious indifference – as well as other outlooks that are harder to classify and record.

Understood this way, the number of non-religious people extends into the hundreds of millions in Europe alone. Yet in spite of this, non-religion had attracted little serious study by social scientists before the turn of this century, and it remains of marginal interest in many quarters. This is partly because non-religion has been another casualty of the dominating Enlightenment view of modernity – which sees modernization as involving the steady rationalisation of peoples and thought, causing, in turn, religion to decline.

This view of modernity has been widely challenged since it emerged, often in critiques which defend religion as having an important role in modern society. Amongst other things, these critics contend that religion is less vulnerable than we had anticipated it would be, and that it is potentially more rational than we thought. Interestingly, this becomes a debate purely about religion itself – it reinforces the idea that religion is the sole issue at stake and remains a singular oddity that needs to be explained.

A small, but growing number of non-religion scholars take a different view: We argue that the study of religion does not have to be about religion alone. This sounds like a contradiction in terms, of course, but actually it reflects how far language has become strait-jacketed by the idea that religion is a unique phenomenon. We are so accustomed to the idea that religion is singular and without alternative, that we have yet to developed a more generalized term for the collected perspectives of religion, spiritualism and non-religion –as, for example, we use the term “gender” to include men, women, intersex and transgendered positions.

This is not just an academic issue or one of quibbling about categories. The tradition of treating non-religion as a non-entity means that we gloss over some significant social issues that diverse and pluralist societies should be addressing.

One example is the dialogue between faith and non-faith groups. Taking the idea of non-religion seriously involves taking seriously the idea that religious and non-religious communities co-exist and are likely to co-exist indefinitely. The way these groups interact has, in a globally communicative world, become important in national and international politics, civil society and personal relationships. They can either treat one another with tolerance and understanding, or with fear and misunderstanding. A non-religious position is never, however, a position of neutrality.

The idea that religion is something, and non-religion is nothing, can have different practical implications. It is, on the one hand, related to the idea that religion is strange and problematic whereas non-religion is normal and benign. On the other hand, the same stance can also lead to the view that religion is diverse, rich, communitarian, meaningful and therefore positive; while non-religion lacks the same capacity to enrich human life. Thus, by separating the two on this basis, we give both sides a legitimate cause for grievance and impair attempts to facilitate more positive relationships between them.

Given the lack of research and discussion about non-religion, there are important and urgent questions to be asked about it. For example, cognitive anthropologists and psychologists studying the cognitive conditions for theism have begun to notice that their work is incomplete unless they also understand the cognitive conditions of non-theism. In social anthropology and sociology, researchers have begun to explore the role of symbolism and communal aspects of non-religious life, helping us to understand more about contemporary human societies and challenging the view that symbolism and ceremony have a special relationship with religion.

For students of politics and international relations, questions relate to the relationship between non-religious perspectives and political secularism, liberalism and democracy – the same questions, in fact, that are currently being asked of religion. And in religious studies in general, establishing what constitutes non-religion is helping to answer fundamental questions about the nature of religion itself.

All of this is of practical significance. Answering such questions will impact upon people’s understandings of themselves and others. Given the importance of inter-cultural and intra-cultural dialogue in diverse, pluralist societies, the existence of a large, silent majority – as the non-religious are, especially in Europe – is a problem. Initial findings from my own research, for example, indicate that different non-religious groups perceive religiosity in different ways. This and work like it, which recognises non-religions as participants in “religious”conversations, is necessary to facilitate real and productive dialogue.

Provided by University of Cambridge

"Europe's forgotten 'religion'." August 25th, 2011. http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-08-europe-forgotten-religion.html

Comment:
Delusion is less prevalent in modern times.

Posted by
Robert Karl Stonjek

Teenage stroke -- a frightening trend

 Health

Stroke has generally been considered a disease of the elderly, but the incidence of stroke in children and teens has increased in recent years. The American Heart Association Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics 2011 Data indicate that the unhealthy behaviors that are the risk factors for stroke begin with school-aged children. 

The following statistic may offer insight into this increase:

-- Prevalence of obesity in ages 12-19 has risen in the past 25 years from 5 percent to 17 percent.
-- Type 2 diabetes, a disease that once was seen only in older adults, is present in 15 percent of overweight children.
-- High blood pressure is at an unprecedented level for children aged 3 to 18.
-- Abnormal cholesterol levels in ages 12-19 is 30 percent.

If these risk factors are not addressed quickly, children born since the year 2000 may not outlive their parents.

To add to this challenge, teenagers do not realize that they are at risk for stroke and generally do not understand the life-long implications of unhealthy lifestyle choices.

Behaviors such as smoking tobacco, exposure to secondhand smoke, and marijuana and alcohol use add to their risk. The use of birth control pills in combination with smoking puts teenage girls at much greater risk for stroke.

A recent study of children and teens with risk factors of obesity and high cholesterol revealed a vascular age 30 years older than their actual age. The study director, cardiologist Geetha Raghuveer, reported that the average age of the study group was 13 years, while the average age of their carotid arteries (arteries that supply blood to the brain) was 45 years.

With control of risk factors, 80 percent of strokes could be prevented. So what can parents do?

• Become a role model for healthy lifestyle choices. Continue your own exercise plan; demonstrate moderation in alcohol intake; and do not smoke.
• Limit the availability of high-calorie foods and snacks at home.
• Limit sugared soft drinks and juices, fast food and high-fat foods.
• Establish TV- and computer-free time to make time for physical activity.
• Establish family meal time with healthy menus. Focus on high-fiber whole grains, legumes, fruits and vegetables. Limit portion sizes.
• Develop family activities and hobbies that involve physical activity.

Provided by Pennsylvania State University

"Teenage stroke -- a frightening trend." August 25th, 2011. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-08-teenage-trend.html

Comment:
This is an EEA for a society beyond our time and imagination...

Posted by
Robert Karl Stonjek

EPFL Deep Brain Stimulation spin-off raises 10 million Swiss francs

 Neuroscience 

One of the biggest financing rounds for furthering the work of a doctoral student has just been completed at EPFL. The microscopic electrodes developed by André Mercanzini – which are currently in clinical trials – could revolutionize Deep Brain Stimulation.

The microelectrodes developed by André Mercanzini should generate a lot of interest from investors: they have the potential to reduce side-effects, the risk of complications, and cost. At a time when Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) has an increasing number of applications – such as the treatment of pain relief, epilepsy and depression – the market for these products is estimated to be around 450 million Swiss francs. “It should grow at about 25% each year,” notes Jean-Pierre Rosat, CEO of Aleva Neurotherapeutics. The start-up, launched by the young scientist in 2008, has just completed a round of financing that raised 10 million francs, thanks to BiomedInvest AG, BB Biotech Ventures III, Initiative Capital Romandie, and private investors. It’s almost certainly a record for the school for an innovative product resulting from doctoral work over the last ten years.

The DBS technique has been used since the beginning of the nineties for the treatment of Parkinson’s Disease. It consists of implanting 3 millimeters long electrodes at precise points in the brain, while a pacemaker, implanted at the level of the thorax, continuously sends impulses in order to reduce symptoms. To fit the electrode in place, the target zone is identified using the technique of radiological localization. The results are spectacular: as soon as the device is implanted, trembling, rigidity and problems with movement diminish, thus improving the quality of life of the patient.

As part of his thesis with Professor Philippe Renaud, André Mercanzini – now CTO of the company – developed the microscopic electro-stimulators at the Center for MicroNanoTechnology, most of the work taking place in the clean room, a dust-free area. Measuring from 50 microns in diameter (the width of a hair) to a millimeter, they will enable improved precision, which in turn will limit side effects. Its dimensions will make it possible to position more than twenty of them on the surface to be treated, compared with a maximum of four using products currently on the market. This will result in an increase in the number of neurological diseases that might be treated by this method.

The fineness of these devices will also enable easier implantation and the surgical procedures will be more rapid. Moreover, the treatment of other conditions can be envisaged, in particular psychiatric illnesses, where the relevant zone is very small. The material used is a composite of polymer and metal, and this greatly reduces any risk of rejection of the implant by the patient’s body.

This product, currently the subject of clinical trials at CHUV, combines reliability with cost reduction. The recent investments will allow the company to increase its activity and bring the new electrode to the market.

Provided by Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne

"EPFL Deep Brain Stimulation spin-off raises 10 million Swiss francs." August 25th, 2011. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-08-epfl-deep-brain-spin-off-million.html

Posted by
Robert Karl Stonjek

The Power of the Holy Name

“Shri Rama personally gave liberation to Shabari, the vulture Jatayu and those who performed wonderful devotional service, whereas the holy name has liberated countless wretches; a fact well-established in the Vedas, which sing of its glories.” (Dohavali, 32) sabarī gīdha susevakani sugati dīnhi raghunātha |  nāma udhāre amita khala beda bidita guna gātha || The benefit of the human birth is the ability to understand religious principles and then utilize that information for attaining the supreme and most auspicious destination,sugati. Activities are meant to further a purpose, to lead the individual towards a destination. Even in the most rudimentary understanding of religion, it is known that if one behaves improperly their future destination will be in a hellish place, whereas if there is a proper acknowledgment of a particular spiritual figure then the next destination, the one following the current life, will be in the heavenly realm. Though only in the human form of body can this information be understood and properly acted upon, one aspect of the Supreme Lord, the person to whom all service activities in spirituality are devoted, is so powerful that it can grant an auspicious destination to even those who are unaware of religious principles. This wonderful feature of the Personality of Godhead has delivered more individuals than the Supreme Lord Himself has. Why is religion the highest benefit to a human birth? This is established from the study of consciousness and its development. We know that in the animal community there is rampant participation in things like eating, sleeping, mating and defending. No one has to teach the dog how to have sexual intercourse, nor does it need to be reminded of the need to eat. A tiger, though not properly versed in economic theory or the current price of gold, can manage to find food for itself, even if the meals don’t come very often. Base behavior is referred to as animalistic because it doesn’t need to be taught. From observing the animals, we see that the human being has a more developed consciousness. This advantage is there for a reason, and it should be used to further a purpose. If an advantage is not used, it ceases being advantageous. If the human being copies the animals in behavior, it has not made the best use of its advanced intelligence. If the human being spends its time only on contemplating what kind of meat it should eat, how to enjoy sex life, and what type of bed to sleep on, how is their mindset any different from the lowly animal? Indeed, the animal has a leg up in this lifestyle because they are free of any hankerings and lamentations. The animal’s consciousness is so undeveloped that it doesn’t even have any shame in its activities, nor does it have to worry about losing everything at the time of death. It doesn’t even know that death is imminent. The regulations provided by scriptures, irrespective of which tradition they come from, are meant to create a level of detachment from the senses. Since the strongest urges relate to eating and sex life, various types of animal sacrifices, accompanied by fasting days and periods of penance, are recommended. To those unfamiliar with the ultimate objective of life and the advantage that an advanced consciousness brings, these restrictions and regulations can be misunderstood. Driven by the urges of the senses, the conditioned living entity will take the animal sacrifices as an open license to eat as much meat as possible and to open slaughterhouses that regularly kill innocent and sweet animals likecows. As previously mentioned, animals already know how to eat meat without being taught, so why would the authors of religious texts waste their time teaching human beings how to do the same thing? Obviously the recommendations for animal sacrifice are meant to curb the tendency towards unnecessary violence; otherwise there would be no purpose to the instruction. The animal has no ability to curb its senses or take to austerity as a means of furthering their condition; only the human being has these abilities. The recommendations for penances and fasts are there to lead the human being to the highest destination. Ironically enough, the concept of tapasya, or austerity, is present in virtually every venture in life. The medical student must undergo years of rigorous training and intense study before they can start to practice medicine. In the absence of this dedication, which most people could not follow, the desired outcome of being a doctor cannot be reached. The austerity measures are not meant as a punishment but rather as a way of increasing the dedication to the task at hand, and thus increasing the chances of meeting the end goal. “According to the three modes of material nature and the work ascribed to them, the four divisions of human society were created by Me. And, although I am the creator of this system, you should know that I am yet the non-doer, being unchangeable.” (Lord Krishna, Bhagavad-gita, 4.13) The more advanced the consciousness, the greater the chances of adhering to the regulative principles of religion, which help further the march towards the final destination. The human form of body, especially one possessing the quality of goodness to the highest degree, is considered the greatest boon. The four divisions of social standing instituted by Lord Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, are built around this principle. This system, which is known as varnashrama-dharma, is commonly misunderstood to be a caste system determined by birth, but it is actually a division based on inherent qualities and the work that goes with them. As the levels in the system are ascended, the chances for achieving liberation increase. In virtually every sphere of life we see a caste system. Within a classroom there is a distinction between the teacher and the students, in an airplane there is the pilot and the passengers, and within a nation there is the government and the citizens. All parties are equal constitutionally, but based on training and understanding of information specific to the realm, the parties take on different roles and are thus treated differently. The Vedas, the ancient scriptures of India, consider birth as a male to be more advantageous than birth as a female. On the surface this seems like discrimination, but with an honest assessment, we see that the power of intellect is generally more pronounced in the male, while the power of emotion is predominant in the female. Surely there are exceptions to this rule, but the general tendency is put forth, revealed and worked around to provide society the best opportunity for escaping the clutches of material existence, which continues throughreincarnation, which is fueled by the desire of the spirit soul to enjoy material nature. Within the males, birth and training as a brahmana, a member of the priestly class, is considered the most beneficial, as it leads to the most developed consciousness, one that understands the equality shared amongst all species. Regardless of the specific body type accepted and its composition in terms of the material modes of goodness, passion and ignorance, every form of life is equal at the core. We are all Brahman, aham brahmasmi. This means that we are equally part and parcel of the Supreme Lord, similar to Him in quality and vastly inferior to Him in quantitative powers. “That knowledge by which one undivided spiritual nature is seen in all existences, undivided in the divided, is knowledge in the mode of goodness.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 18.20) The brahmana, who receives his designation based on his qualities and the work he follows, lives in the mode of goodness. He studies the Vedas, follows their prescriptions and teaches others about the uniqueness of the human birth and the need for following one’s dharma, or occupational duty. Since we are all spirit souls, our eternal engagement is known as devotional service, or bhakti-yoga. Yoga is the linking of the individual soul with the Supreme Soul, the addition of two distinct entities. Through regular adherence to regulations put forth in the Vedas, one can gradually progress towards achieving a permanent union with the Lord in terms of consciousness. At the time of death, the spiritually conscious individual gains release from the cycle of birth and death, and thus frees themselves from all designations pertaining to body and material qualities. For those who cannot directly take to bhakti, which is pure devotion to God enacted through a variety of processes, there is the system of varnashrama-dharma, or occupational duty specific to body type. This level of dharma can be compared to the delegation of duties performed by an office manager. On a particular project or within a specific office structure, the leader will delegate specific tasks to different individuals. One person may be charged with sales, while another has to do menial work like cleaning the floors and ensuring that copies are made and sorted. Regardless of the specific task assigned, the end goal is the same, to meet the stated objective of the leader and thus satisfy him. In a similar manner, the brahmana, by judging the qualities of each person, assigns specific tasks, which are delineated in the Vedas, to the members of society. One who performs their duties properly, even if they are unaware of the blissful nature of the Supreme Lord and the need for developing consciousness, will make tremendous progress towards acquiring God consciousness. It is for this reason that there are different dharmas given to men, women, merchants, priests, administrators, warriors and laborers. These designations are not created to punish or to foment dissension through class discrimination, but rather to allow everyone’s natural qualities to be used for furthering the highest cause, that of reaching the supreme destination. “O son of Pritha, those who take shelter in Me, though they be of lower birth - women, vaishyas [merchants], as well as shudras [workers]—can approach the supreme destination.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 9.32) As Lord Krishna so kindly reveals in the Bhagavad-gita, participation in bhakti and the resulting benefits are open to every single person, regardless of their social stature. As mentioned before, the designations between species and the considerations relating to higher and lower birth are made in terms of consciousness and its potential for development and purification. But these distinctions don’t preclude any person from attaining liberation through dedication to the lotus feet of the Supreme Lord, who is always blissful, knowledgeable and full of form. To prove that His mercy secured through devotion is open to everyone, irrespective of their assigned dharma corresponding to their body type, the Supreme Lord descends to earth every now and then, particularly when there is a sharp decline in religious practice, and grants Hisdarshana, which is the most auspicious vision, to those who are desperately seeking it. During the Treta Yuga, the second time period of creation, God, who is described by thousands of names including the Sanskrit word “Krishna” [which means all-attractive] in the Vedic tradition, roamed the earth as a warrior prince named Rama. Though spending many years in the forest in the garb of an ascetic due to restrictions imposed on Him by His father, Rama was nonetheless the same Supreme Lord, the most fortunate living entity known the world over. Rama was especially dedicated to dharma, or virtue and piety established in the Vedas, but His mercy was still open to everyone, as He was a complete incarnation. Goswami Tulsidas, a devotee of Lord Rama and a wonderful poet, remarks in the above quoted verse from the Dohavali that Rama granted the most auspicious destination, sugati, to the female ascetic Shabari and the bird Jatayu. Shabari was living in the area of the forest near the Pampa Lake. Lord Rama and His younger brother Lakshmana made their way to her hermitage during their search for Sita Devi, the princess of Videha and wife of Rama. Sita had been taken away by a Rakshasa king named Ravana to an island called Lanka. This was part of the sequence of events necessary for Rama to defeat and kill Ravana in an open battle. The wonderful events of Rama’s life are nicely described in the Ramayana poem penned by Maharishi Valmiki. Valmiki was a contemporary of Rama’s, as the Lord visited the sage’s ashrama during His initial days in the forest. Shabari welcomed Rama and Lakshmana hospitably, feeding them the nicest berries that were in the forest. As a reward for her kind dedication, Rama granted her liberation from the cycle of birth and death, bestowing upon her the fruit of her religious practice. She was dedicated to the instructions offered by her spiritual masters, or gurus, and she always controlled her eating and made sure to live by austerity. An ascetic without penances loses their stature, similar to how a general must have a mission to have his title mean something. Though she was born a woman, which is considered a lower birth due to the lesser potential for the development of consciousness, Rama nevertheless showered His mercy upon her. Shabari was so fortunate that she met Rama directly, proving that God is not the exclusive property of the priestly class or those born into a high family. Rama’s benevolence is also open to the animal community, who are considered even lower forms of life than human beings. When Sita was first taken away from the forest through a backhanded plot by Ravana, the demon was met with opposition from the vulture Jatayu. Ravana had an aerial car that he had many years prior taken away from his brother Kuvera. Ravana was using this car to fly back to Lanka with Sita, who was trying her best to escape from the king’s clutches. Had Rama or Lakshmana been around, Ravana would not have been able to escape alive, but because of the distraction created by his Rakshasa friend Maricha, Ravana was able to ascend the car with Sita and fly away in the air. Jatayu was very good friends with Maharaja Dasharatha, Rama’s father. So he immediately put up opposition and valiantly fought with Ravana, trying to save Sita. Unfortunately, Ravana would defeat Jatayu in battle and then fly away. While lying on the ground about to die, Jatayu was visited by Rama and Lakshmana. Though in the form of a lowly vulture, Jatayu was still a pure devotee of God. For this he received the most wonderful benediction, one that hadn’t been received by anyone up until that time: seeing the Lord’s face directly at the time of death. Quitting his body while being held in the arms of the Supreme Lord Rama, Jatayu immediately received liberation. This is the promise made by Krishna Himself in the Bhagavad-gita, that anyone who quits their body remembering Him alone never has to take birth again. “And whoever, at the time of death, quits his body, remembering Me alone, at once attains My nature. Of this there is no doubt.” (Lord Krishna, Bg. 8.5) These two events illustrate Rama’s mercy and His ability to grant liberation to anyone, regardless of their social standing. Tulsidas sets the table by referencing these two notable souls, whose stories are difficult to top in brilliance. But then the poet reveals that the holy name, which is glorified in the Vedas, has been known to liberate countless wretched individuals, the worst of the worst. This fact is well established in the Vedas, so one who is familiar with the voluminous literature describing the glories of the Supreme Lord understands that there is no exaggeration in this assertion made by Tulsidas. We know that Valmiki Muni was delivered by the holy name. In his early days he was a violent thief by trade, but through the good graces of Narada Muni, Valmiki took to chanting the name of Rama, albeit indirectly in the beginning, and then subsequently found enlightenment. He gained liberation while in his present body, and he was thus able to author the wonderful Ramayana. The deliverance of the brahmana Ajamila is another wonderful example of the power of the holy name. In his youth Ajamila was a dedicated brahmana and devotee of God, but through association with a prostitute he fell down from his high position. Through this woman he begot a son, who was named Narayana due to Ajamila’s God consciousness that still happened to remain. Narayana is another name for Vishnu, or God, which means the source of all men. When he was on his deathbed, Ajamila called out to his son Narayana out of attachment, and because of this he was saved from going to hell. Narayana is the Lord’s name after all, so anyone, even those deserving of punishment due to past sinful activities, who chants it at the time of death cannot possibly be slated to go to the hellish realm. The servants of Vishnu immediately stepped in and declared that Ajamila was a devotee who had chanted the holy name. He was therefore destined for attaining the supreme destination. These are only two examples out of countless others where the holy name saved even the most wretched person. If the holy name can deliver the sinful, we can just imagine what effect it has on those who are pure at heart and always think of the Lord. In the current age, which is known as Kali for its dark influence on dharma, rare is the person who takes full advantage of the potential for a fully developed consciousness that is exclusive to the human species. The benevolence that is available even to the wretched and low born is extended to every single one of us. We may or may not have the opportunity to see Rama personally like Shabari and Jatayu did, but if we regularly chant, “Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare”, we can be assured of liberation. The Vedas have well established the power and potency of the holy name, so if we hold onto these sound vibrations as our life and soul, the Supreme Person they address will never leave us.

New molecule to beat toxin

THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND

A ribbons molecular model of Botulinum Toxin, commonly known as Botox. Image: theasis/iStockphoto Australian researchers have discovered a new way to block the action of botulinum toxin, which may pave the way for more effective treatments of the life-threatening disease botulism. A team comprising scientists from the Queensland Brain Institute (QBI), the University of Newcastle and the Children's Medical Research Institute have found a novel way of blocking the update of the toxin using a new class of drug called dynamin inhibitors. “We have designed and tested a new molecule called Dyngo-4a™ which prevents botulinum toxin from entering nerve cells,” explains QBI Associate Professor Fred Meunier, who led the study. “Dyngo-4a™ works by blocking the action of a protein called dynamin which plays a key role in controlling how most molecules can enter nerve cells.” Botulism is a rare but potentially fatal condition that involves progressive weakness. It is caused by botulinum toxin, which is made by the Clostridium botulinum bacterium found naturally in soil, sediments, raw foods (including seafood) and honey. As terrorists have also attempted to use botulinum toxin as a bioweapon, development of more effective treatments to counter this type of health threat is a high priority for countries such as the United States. “The toxin that causes botulism is one of the most deadly agents known – it's been estimated that a single gram of it in crystalline form could kill more than one million people if distributed evenly,” Associate Professor Meunier says. Currently, the only known treatment for botulism is antibodies that bind some of the toxin before it reaches nerve cells. Dyngo-4a™ significantly delayed the onset of paralysis, botulism's most lethal symptom, by more than 30 per cent, adds Associate Professor Meunier. “This is significant because it may provide extra time for antibodies to take effect and minimize symptoms,” he says. “Our research is the first to identify the protein dynamin as a suitable drug target for preventing botulinum toxin entering nerve cells throughout the body.” According to Professor Phil Robinson, Head of the Cell Signalling Research Unit at the Children's Medical Research Institute, botulinum toxin, like anthrax, is a biological agent of international concern because it has the potential to be used as a deadly weapon and to be a serious threat to public health. The World Health Organisation notes that, while rare, botulism infections can be fatal in 5 to 10 per cent of cases. Each year, several hundred children around the world die from botulism. “Current treatment options for botulism are expensive and not readily available to the public,” explains Professor Robinson. “Therefore any new developments that could lead to improved treatment options and be more widely accessible, particularly in large scale bioterrorism situations, are very welcome.” Dyngo-4a™ was designed by the Medicinal Chemistry team of Professor Adam McCluskey at the University of Newcastle. The research may also have much broader implications, with the new findings potentially being useful to develop these compounds further for a range of other serious infections. Dyngo-4a™ and other dynamin inhibitors are currently undergoing early stage laboratory testing for their suitability as potential therapeutics for a range of diseases. “Our discovery not only opens up the possibility of better treatments for botulism, it also provides a new starting point for investigating potential treatments for other infectious diseases which use the same pathway to enter nerve cells in the body,” Professor Robinson says. The next steps for the research team will be to test the efficacy of higher doses of Dyngo-4a™ and determine the window of opportunity for treatment following exposure to botulinum toxin. The research is published online (August) in the international Journal of Biological Chemistry.

Study maps cells’ power house

THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND

"This is the first highly detailed map of the human mitochondrial transcriptome." Image: Raycat/iStockphoto An international research team, spearheaded by Dr Tim Mercer from The University of Queensland's Institute for Molecular Bioscience (IMB), has unlocked the blueprints to the ‘power plants' of the cell in an effort that will provide clues on treating a range of degenerative diseases. The scientists, from UQ, the University of Western Australia and the University of Washington (Seattle), mapped the transcriptome of the human mitochondrion, which supplies energy to the body's cells. Professor John Mattick of UQ's IMB, one of the leaders of the study, said the genome was like a static set of plans for the mitochondria's genetic function, while the transcriptome revealed which genes were active at particular points in time. “This is the first highly detailed map of the human mitochondrial transcriptome, as well as insights into its control mechanisms, and will provide an important resource for the future study of mitochondrial function and disease,” he said. “By examining which genes are being expressed under various environmental conditions, such as in healthy cells versus infected cells, we can determine the changes in gene activity that may indicate or cause disease.” Mutations in mitochondrial DNA lead to a range of disorders, many of which affect the nervous and muscular systems. The information the team has compiled will provide an improved framework to analyse how genetic mutations in the mitochondria affect gene activity and thus the body itself. The study is published in the current edition of the leading science journal Cell, while the data sets are accessible at the mitochondria-specific genome browser http://mitochondria.matticklab.com The work was supported by the Australian Research Council, the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Queensland Government, the Australian Stem Cell Centre and the US National Institutes of Health.

50th anniversary of Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments

(Medical Xpress) -- Stories of torture, corporate greed, fraud, and misconduct are regular features of daily news coverage. For years, psychological scientists have tried to understand why ordinary and decent people are driven to commit such atrocious acts. Much of what we know on this topic can be traced to the work of one man: Stanley Milgram. Fifty years ago, Milgram, an assistant professor of psychology at Yale University, began a famous and controversial series of experiments to test the boundaries of people’s obedience to authority and determine how far normal people would go in inflicting pain on others just because they were told to.

The experiment involved forty males who each took on the role of a “teacher” who delivered electric shocks to a “learner” when they answered a question incorrectly. Though the “teacher” believed that he was delivering real shocks, the “learner” was actually part of Milgram’s research team and only pretended to be in pain. The “learner” would implore the “teacher” to stop the shocks and the “teacher” would be encouraged to continue despite the learner’s pleas.

These experiments laid the foundation for understanding why seemingly decent people could be encouraged to do bad things. Thomas Blass, Milgram biographer and a professor of psychology at the University of Maryland Baltimore County, says that Milgram’s obedience experiments provided a powerful affirmation of one of the main guiding principles of contemporary social psychology: “It is not the kind of person we are that determines how we act, but rather the kind of situation we find ourselves in.”

“What Milgram’s obedience studies revealed above all was the sheer power of social pressure. Suddenly it was conceivable that the sorts of psychological forces producing conformity that social scientists had been interested in for some time could not only explain fashions and stock market gyrations, but also some of the 20th century’s most egregious collective behaviors: genocide, the Holocaust, totalitarianism,” says Dominic Packer, Assistant Professor of Psychology at Lehigh University.

Milgram’s obedience work sparked an examination of the ethics of psychological research on human subjects and has had a profound and lasting effect on how research in most areas within the social and behavioral sciences is conducted, says Jeffry Simpson, Professor of Psychology at the University of Minnesota,. He argues that the rise of research studying people in their natural lives and environments is one of the most important legacies of Milgram’s work.

Blass states that Milgram’s obedience experiments are important because they provide a frame of reference for contemporary real-life instances of extreme, destructive obedience. The fact that recent studies have replicated Milgram’s findings demonstrates that Milgram had “identified one of the universals or constants of social behavior, spanning time and place.”

Now, fifty years later, Milgram’s experiments serve as a turning point in the field of social psychology reminding us, as Packer observes, that “normal psychological processes – working away in all of us – can give rise to terrible behaviors if we are not careful.”

Check out these videos that explain the experiments: 

Clinical study shows young brains lack the wisdom of their elders

The brains of older people are not slower but rather wiser than young brains, which allows older adults to achieve an equivalent level of performance, according research undertaken at the University Geriatrics Institute of Montreal by Dr. Oury Monchi and Dr. Ruben Martins of the Univeristy of Montreal.

"The older brain has experience and knows that nothing is gained by jumping the gun. It was already known that aging is not necessarily associated with a significant loss in cognitive function. When it comes to certain tasks, the brains of older adults can achieve very close to the same performance as those of younger ones," explained Dr. Monchi. "We now have neurobiological evidence showing that with age comes wisdom and that as the brain gets older, it learns to better allocate its resources. Overall, our study shows that Aesop's fable about the tortoise and the hare was on the money: being able to run fast does not always win the race—you have to know how to best use your abilities. This adage is a defining characteristic of aging."

The original goal of the study was to explore the brain regions and pathways that are involved in the planning and execution of language pairing tasks. In particular, the researchers were interested in knowing what happened when the rules of the task changed part way through the exercise. For this test, participants were asked to pair words according to different lexical rules, including semantic category (animal, object, etc.), rhyme, or the beginning of the word (attack). The matching rules changed multiple times throughout the task without the participants knowing. For example, if the person figured out that the words fell under the same semantic category, the rule was changed so that they were required to pair the words according to rhyme instead.

"Funny enough, the young brain is more reactive to negative reinforcement than the older one. When the young participants made a mistake and had to plan and execute a new strategy to get the right answer, various parts of their brains were recruited even before the next task began. However, when the older participants learned that they had made a mistake, these regions were only recruited at the beginning of the next trial, indicating that with age, we decide to make adjustments only when absolutely necessary. It is as though the older brain is more impervious to criticism and more confident than the young brain," stated Dr. Monchi.

Key to Africa’s Progress in Water and Sanitation

• African countries that transition to taking a leadership role in safe water and sanitation service delivery can potentially increase access for millions of people by 2015.
• To accelerate progress, at least an additional US$6 billion a year of domestic and donor funds are needed. 
• Households that invest in basic sanitation reap up to 7 times their initial investment in economic benefits, including health and access time.

As global powers debate ways to solve economic challenges, a more menacing fight is happening in East Africa, where the worst drought in decades has caused widespread hunger, deaths, and the loss of subsistence crops and livestock. 

Even without drought conditions, 564 million and 326 million Africans, respectively, do not have access to improved sanitation or safe drinking water.  Women are disproportionately affected because they spend hours fetching water or seeking sanitation facilities instead of in school or working.  Lack of water and sanitation even accounts for excess mortality among girls in infancy and early childhood.

Watch a slideshow on the status of Africa's water and sanitation sector  Learn more about the report and download individual country reports

Increasing Access

In 2000, countries in Africa and in other regions set targets to halve by 2015 the number of people without access to these basic services.  Some of them may meet these targets.  In rural Rwanda, where nearly 4 million people gained access to improved sanitation between 1990 and 2008, household access to sanitation facilities has increased faster than in any other country in the region.In fact, according to a new report by the World Bank’s Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), released this week to coincide with Sweden’s annual gathering of global water experts, sub-Saharan Africa has made significant progress in extending access to improved water supply and sanitation. 

Progress made since 1990 points to a combination of factors, but the key is for countries to own the responsibility for putting in place the necessary frameworks and know-how to coordinate service delivery to people nationwide. 

“African countries that transition to taking a leadership role in safe water and sanitation service delivery to the millions of people without access have an unprecedented opportunity to drastically reduce these numbers by 2015,” said the report’s author and WSP Senior Financial Specialist Dominick de Waal.

Increasing Funding Levels to the Sector

The report added that accelerating progress requires increasing current funding levels by at least US$6 billion a year by raising both domestic and donor financing flows to the sector. 

The prospects and incentives for countries to make this shift to country-led service delivery are unprecedented.  Improving political stability, economic growth, debt relief, increasing aid volume, and the accompanying renaissance of country-led service delivery in other sectors in Africa, mean opportunities to make an impact are more favorable now than they have been in recent times.

Improving Quality of Life

Improving access means improved quality of life for millions.  A separate WSP study released later this week out of East Asia will show that households that invest in basic sanitation reap up to seven times the initial investment in economic benefits, including health and access time.

Despite current global economic challenges, African countries have a unique opportunity now to accelerate progress in delivering safe water and sanitation to the millions without.