History of Firefighting Vehicles

Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the first fire pump around the second century B.C. but the idea was lost, ironically, in the burning of Alexandria. The fire pump was reinvented in Europe during the 1500s, reportedly used in Augsburg in 1518 and Nuremberg in 1657. A book of 1655 inventions mentions a steam engine (called fire engine) pump used to "raise a column of water 12 m," but there was no mention of whether it was portable.

When the Jamestown settlement was established in Virginia in 1607, it did not take long for America’s first colonists to recognize the problem of fire.  In January of the following year, raging flames destroyed a good part of the settlement.   This forced colonists to come up with a plan for dealing with fires.  They started using “bucket brigades” to help quash flames.  When a fire was reported, all available people would form two lines near the flames.  Buckets of water would be passed down one line, tossed onto the fire, and then return the other way to get refilled.   As for fire warnings, early colonists used their voices in addition to rattles, gongs, and other easily crafted noisemakers to spread word of the flames.

Despite early efforts from colonists, it was not until 1648 that an organized fire corps was developed.  In this year, the government of New Amsterdam, now known as New York, created four fire warden positions.   A law was also created banning wooden chimneys and thatched roofs.  These building components were two of the major fire hazards in early American cities.  It was the duty of the fire wardens to enforce these laws and inspect buildings for other hazards.  Those who did not comply with regulations were fined by the city.  Within a few years, other settlements follow suit.   These were the first steps towards creating an organized firefighting industry in America. 

Among the earliest fire brigades were those in Boston and Philadelphia.  These cities were the first to purchase actual fire engines to facilitate movement to and from fires.  Boston acquired its vehicle in 1653 and Philadelphia followed in 1719.  Of course, in this early period, the engines were actually horse or man-powered vehicles with hand-pumps for helping stream water at the flames.  Most early hand-pumps were constructed in England and shipped to the American colonies.  This made it difficult to acquire many of the pumps.  Additionally, it took a lot of effort to work these devices, and the tubs needed to be frequently refilled.  However, they were ultimately far more effective than standard bucket brigades.

 

The United States’ founding fathers were also very interested in fire prevention and control.  In fact, George Washington himself served as a volunteer firefighter in Virginia.  He even bought his town its first fire engine.  Fellow American politician Thomas Jefferson was also on a volunteer brigade.  Additionally, Benjamin Franklin worked to improve firefighting by founding the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia in 1736.  Franklin was inspired by a visit to Boston, where he admired the city’s level of firefighting preparedness.   He wanted to bring this same quality to Philadelphia.  Franklin even wrote a newspaper article on the dangers of fires in order to raise awareness.  Ultimately, his efforts were successful and the Union Fire Company became the model for other firefighter bands in other cities. 

Although the first firefighting systems in America were run by volunteers, many of these eventually gave way to professional leagues.  This was especially true in major urban centers where volunteers were simply not organized enough and lacked sufficient funding to deal with fire problems.  After several major fires in cities like New York, it was clear that paying professionals to fight fires would result in a higher quality system.  Additionally, improved organization would diminish rivalries and encourage the use of better technology.  Although many volunteer firefighters resented the change, professional groups eventually won over most of America’s cities.

One of the most important developments in firefighting technology took place around the same time as the switch from urban volunteers to professional forces.  In the early 1800s, inventors in England designed a steam-powered water pump.  Coal was used to power the steam pump, which could then stream water into hoses.  The additional force made all the difference when fighting difficult fires.  Plus, these new devices required less manpower to use.  Subsequently, many volunteer firefighters did not want to implement the new technology.  However, as their position became less and less influential, steam pumps made their way into the American firefighting system.

The first paid firefighting company in the United States was located in Cincinnati, Ohio.  It was founded in 1853 and soon followed by counterparts in New York and Philadelphia.  By using paid departments cities were guaranteed a consistent group of individuals available to fight fires.  Additionally, career firefighters were held to higher standards of training and efficiency.   This meant they were better-equipped to perform their duties and less likely to be injured on the job.

During the twentieth century, firefighters were able to improve their efforts even more thanks to new technologies.  The first major invention was the internal combustion engine.  This naturally led to the development of automobiles and, subsequently, fire trucks.  Firefighters also learned to utilize radio communication and a special breathing device called the “self-contained breathing apparatus” (SCBA).  This made firefighting safer and allowed firefighters to rescue more individuals from a flaming building. 

Today, American firefighting involves a number of individuals with specialized jobs.  Aside from traditional firefighters, there are also those who deal with hazardous materials, skyscrapers, and fires on the seas.  Additionally, many fire companies have separate ambulatory units to assist injured victims.  Both volunteers and paid servicemen participate in all these duties.  Naturally, modern firefighting also requires greater training and a higher budget for equipment and personnel. Firefighters must be available at all hours of the day, every day of the year.  Fires can occur at any time without warning.  Thus, for the United States to remain safe from damage, it needs to retain firefighting forces across the country.  Firefighters must also receive proper training and equipment in order to do their jobs effectively. 

Colonial laws in America required each house to have a bucket of water on the front stoop (especially at night) in case of fire, for the initial "bucket brigade" that would throw the water at fires. Philadelphia obtained a hand-pumped fire engine in 1719, years after Boston's 1654 model appeared there, made by Joseph Jencks, but before New York's two engines arrived from London.

1725. Hand drawn 5th size manual fire engine. Used in England. Bedpost style pumper.

1740. Hand drawn 3rd size manual fire engine. Used in England.

1760. Hand drawn and carried manual fire engine. Used in England.

By 1730, Newham, in London, had made successful fire engines; the first used in New York City (in 1731) were of his make (six years before formation of the NYC volunteer fire department). The amount of manpower and skill necessary for firefighting prompted the institution of an organized fire company by Benjamin Franklin in 1737. Thomas Lote built the first fire engine made in America in 1743.

The first fire engine in which steam was used was that of John Braithwaite in 1829.

Ericsson made a similar one in New York in 1840. John Ericsson is credited with building the first American steam-powered fire engine.

John Ericsson

1820. Hand drawn manual fire engine. Built by Simpson of Pimlico, London. Used in England.

1850. Hand drawn manual estate fire engine. Used in England.

Until the mid-19th Century most fire engines were maneuvered by men, but the introduction of horse-drawn fire engines considerably improved the response time to incidents. The first self-propelled steam engine was built in New York in 1841. It was the target of sabotage by firefighters and its use was discontinued, and motorized fire engines did not become commonplace until the early 20th Century.

1866. Hand drawn manual fire engine w/ jumper. Squirrel tail mounted suction hose.

1872. Horse drawn chemical engine. Two 40 gallon tanks plus an 80 gallon reservoir and pump.

1878. Horse drawn 2d size steam fire engine. Rotary engine and rotary pump.

1890. Horse drawn hose and ladder sled. Built on Studebaker wagon chassis.

For many years firefighters sat on the sides of the fire engines, or even stood on the rear of the vehicles, exposed to the elements. While this arrangement enhanced response time, it proved to be both uncomfortable and dangerous (some firefighters were thrown to their deaths when their fire engines made sharp turns on the road), and today nearly all fire engines have fully enclosed seatings for their crews.

1913. Braidwood body style fire engine. Lima, Peru.

1918. Triple comb. Type 10 fire engine. Champion chemical tank.

Early pumpers

Early pumpers used cisterns as a source of water. Water was later put into wooden pipes under the streets and a "fire plug" was pulled out of the top of the pipe when a suction hose was to be inserted.

Later systems incorporated pressurized fire hydrants, where the pressure was increased when a fire alarm was sounded. This was found to be harmful to the system, and unreliable, and today's valved hydrant systems are typically kept under pressure at all times, although additional pressure may be added when needed.

Pressurized hydrants eliminate much of the work in obtaining water for pumping through the engine and into the attack hoses. Many rural fire engines still rely upon cisterns or other sources for drafting water into the pumps.

1920 Kissell Ladder Wagon. The Kissell Motor Car Company of Hartford, Wisconsin, was famous for its sporty cars, especially the Gold Bug. Kissell also made trucks. They built this long base chassis for their home town in 1920. The Hartford FD then placed the body from a horse drawn Seagrave ladder wagon atop the chassis and voila! they had a city service ladder truck. They kept this truck in service until about 1965.

1935 American La France Model 400 fire engine from Norfolk, Nebraska. It has a 1,250 GPM rotary pump and the famous American La France V-12 engine.

1919. Type 31-4 aerial truck.

1928. Standard city service ladder truck.

1951. Model A fire engine. 505 Thermodyne engine, 500 gpm Waterous single stage pump, 150 gallon tank.

1961. TLF-8 fire engine w/ foam trailer. 500 lpm single stage pump, 500 liter tank. Germany.

1968. Model CF600 Engine. 1,250 gpm single stage Waterous pump, 500 gallon tank.

Early aerials

As buildings grew in height since the late 19th Century, various means of reaching burning tall structures have been devised. At first, manually-extendable ladders were used; as these grew in length (and weight) these were put onto two large, old-fashioned wheels. When carried by fire engines these ladders had the wheels suspended behind the rear of the vehicle, making it a very distinctive sight which disappeared from some Commonwealth countries only in recent years.

Before long, the turntable ladder - which was even longer, mechanically-extendable, and installed directly onto a fire truck - made its appearance. Since the late 1930s, the longest turntable ladders have reached a height of 150 feet (45 metres), requiring the aforementioned "tiller trucks" to carry such ladders.

After the Second World War turntable ladders were supplemented by the aerial platform (or the "Cherry Picker") attached onto a mechanically-bending arm (or "snorkel") installed onto a fire truck; while these could not reach the height of the turntable ladder, these platforms could extend into previously unreachable "dead corners" of a burning building.

Argentinian Dodge truck in El Chalt�n.

A fire engine in Helsinki, Finland.

A Mercedes-Benz truck serving as Turntable ladder in Kronach/Germany.

FDNY Engine 6 in New York City.

Spanish Pegaso 7217 truck in Santiago de Compostela.

Polish Zuk van serving as a fire engine.

An organized firefighting corporation is vital to the survival of any civilization. Without dedicated professionals to quash flames, fires can spread quickly and bring down entire city blocks. This ultimately results in lost lives and extensive financial damages. Thus, it is easy to see why the United States has made a commitment to maintaining trained firefighters since the very first years of its history. 

When the Jamestown settlement was established in Virginia in 1607, it did not take long for America's first colonists to recognize the problem of fire. In January of the following year, raging flames destroyed a good part of the settlement. This forced colonists to come up with a plan for dealing with fires. They started using "bucket brigades" to help quash flames. When a fire was reported, all available people would form two lines near the flames. Buckets of water would be passed down one line, tossed onto the fire, and then return the other way to get refilled. As for fire warnings, early colonists used their voices in addition to rattles, gongs, and other easily crafted noisemakers to spread word of the flames.

Despite early efforts from colonists, it was not until 1648 that an organized fire corps was developed. In this year, the government of New Amsterdam, now known as New York, created four fire warden positions. A law was also created banning wooden chimneys and thatched roofs. These building components were two of the major fire hazards in early American cities. It was the duty of the fire wardens to enforce these laws and inspect buildings for other hazards. Those who did not comply with regulations were fined by the city. Within a few years, other settlements follow suit. These were the first steps towards creating an organized firefighting industry in America. 

Among the earliest fire brigades were those in Boston and Philadelphia. These cities were the first to purchase actual fire engines to facilitate movement to and from fires. Boston acquired its vehicle in 1653 and Philadelphia followed in 1719. Of course, in this early period the engines were actually horse or man powered vehicles with hand-pumps for helping stream water at the flames. Most early hand-pumps were constructed in England and shipped to the American colonies. This made it difficult to acquire many of the pumps. Additionally, it took a lot of effort to work these devices, and the tubs needed to be frequently refilled. However, they were ultimately far more effective than standard bucket brigades. 

The United States' founding fathers were also very interested in fire prevention and control. In fact, George Washington himself served as a volunteer firefighter in Virginia. He even bought his town its first fire engine. Fellow American politician Thomas Jefferson was also on a volunteer brigade. Additionally, Benjamin Franklin worked to improve firefighting by founding the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia in 1736. Franklin was inspired by a visit to Boston, where he admired the city's level of firefighting preparedness. He wanted to bring this same quality to Philadelphia. Franklin even wrote a newspaper article on the dangers of fires in order to raise awareness. Ultimately, his efforts were successful and the Union Fire Company became the model for other firefighter bands in other cities. 

Although the first firefighting systems in America were run by volunteers, many of these eventually gave way to professional leagues. This was especially true in major urban centers where volunteers were simply not organized enough and lacked sufficient funding to deal with fire problems. After several major fires in cities like New York, it was clear that paying professionals to fight fires would result in a higher quality system. Additionally, improved organization would diminish rivalries and encourage the use of better technology. Although many volunteer firefighters resented the change, professional groups eventually won over most of America's cities. 

One of the most important developments in firefighting technology took place around the same time as the switch from urban volunteers to professional forces. In the early 1800s, inventors in England designed a steam-powered water pump. Coal was used to power the steam pump, which could then stream water into hoses. The additional force made all the difference when fighting difficult fires. Plus, these new devices required less manpower to use. Subsequently, many volunteer firefighters did not want to implement the new technology. However, as their position became less and less influential, steam pumps made their way into the American firefighting system. 

The first paid firefighting company in the United States was located in Cincinnati, Ohio. It was founded in 1853 and soon followed by counterparts in New York and Philadelphia. By using paid departments cities were guaranteed a consistent group of individuals available to fight fires. Additionally, career firefighters were held to higher standards of training and efficiency. This meant they were better-equipped to perform their duties and less likely to be injured on the job. 

During the twentieth century, firefighters were able to improve their efforts even more thanks to new technologies. The first major invention was the internal combustion engine. This naturally led to the development of automobiles and, subsequently, fire trucks. Firefighters also learned to utilize radio communication and a special breathing device called the "self-contained breathing apparatus" (SCBA). This made firefighting safer and allowed firefighters to rescue more individuals from a flaming building. 

Today, American firefighting involves a number of individuals with specialized jobs. Aside from traditional firefighters, there are also those who deal with hazardous materials, skyscrapers, and fires on the seas. Additionally, many fire companies have separate ambulatory units to assist injured victims. Both volunteers and paid servicemen participate in all these duties. Naturally, modern firefighting also requires greater training and a higher budget for equipment and personnel. 

Firefighters must be available at all hours of the day, every day of the year. Fires can occur at any time without warning. Thus, for the United States to remain safe from damage, it needs to retain firefighting forces across the country. Firefighters must also receive proper training and equipment in order to do their jobs effectively. Thankfully, the United States has met the challenges of developing a corps of firefighters and remains one of the most fire-ready nations in the world.

Read more: http://www.infobarrel.com/The_History_of_American_Fire_Fighting#ixzz1t2jYR6Ar

"Fragile Earth" App Slides Time to Show the Ravages of Climate Change and Development

By Dan Nosowitz

Fragile Earth App HarperCollins

Fragile Earth, new in the App Store this week, is a simple idea, and it's actually executed simply as well--two or more photos of the same place over time, with a slider so you can see how it looks in the past. But these are places that have been utterly changed by major, unstoppable forces: time, industrialization, development, and climate change.

The app, available until April 29th for $0.99, has versions for both iPhone and iPad, and it's optimized for the new iPad's Retina screen. There are currently 73 different locations, split up into categories like "Natural Phenomena," "Warming World," "Man's Impact," and "Wild Weather." The specific locations can be filtered by date, theme, or region. Once you tap through to a specific image, you'll get the image in fullscreen, with a tap-to-show bar at the bottom of the screen that gives more information about what you're seeing. In the middle of the image(s) is a sliding bar that lets you swipe back and forth to see how the location has changed. It looks pretty much like this, only bigger, prettier, and sometimes with more than two included images (you can see the app in action here). Just slide the bar in the middle of the image back and forth to see things change:

The idea behind the app isn't specifically about man's impact or climate change, though that's definitely a major part of it. There are plenty of natural disasters--one of the most jarring is the depiction of Hurricane Katrina's destruction in New Orleans. Scenes range from the dying Aral Sea in Central Asia to the Indonesian tsunami to deforestation in the Amazon to the expansion of a blinking desert city in Las Vegas.

We wish the app was maybe a little less barebones, though it's possible we're spoiled by the extremely flashy Wonders of the Universe, the last app we looked at. And the starkness of the app definitely brings some gravity to these images, a kind of "we're not messing around--this is a big deal" kind of feeling.

Fragile Earth is available in the App Store now.

Lovely Effects Of Smoke in Dark

Lovely EffectIn New Quantum Experiment, Effect Happens Before Causes Of Smoke in Dark

By Paul Adams

Four Particles Jon Heras, Equinox Graphics Ltd.

A real-world demonstration of a thought experiment conducted at the University of Vienna has produced a result that is somewhat befuddling to people with what the lead researcher calls a "naïve classical world view." Two pairs of particles are either quantum-entangled or not. One person makes the decision as to whether to entangle them or not, and another pair of people measure the particles to see whether they're entangled or not.

The head-scratcher is: the measurement is made before the decision is made, and it is accurate. "Classical correlations can be decided after they are measured," says Xiao-song Ma, the writer of the study. Entanglement can be created "after the entangled particles have been measured and may no longer exist."

The finding can be integrated into potential quantum computers, one hopes. Causality, clearly, is a quaint, irrelevant concept.

[Nature]

Accepting The Offer

“There is no need of material qualifications for making progress on the path of spiritual realization. In the material world, when one accepts some particular type of service, he is required to possess some particular type of qualification also. Without this one is unfit for such service. But in the devotional service of the Lord the only qualification required is surrender.” (Shrila Prabhupada, Shrimad Bhagavatam, 2.7.46 Purport) It’s time to look for a new job. Either you’re no longer pleased at the place you currently work or necessity dictates that you must move on to somewhere else. Ah, but changing may not be so easy. You have to look for an open position and then interview for it. The employers aren’t necessarily seeking someone who is loyal, dependable, and can learn new things quickly. They’d rather have someone who is supremely skilled in the area of interest, someone who can take the ball and run with it on day one. Because of this requirement, they will grill prospective candidates, eliminating them based on any perceived flaw. Thus the positions sometimes remain unfilled due to the requirements. A lack of qualified candidates will be the reason given by the employers for the persistent vacancy, while the workers are left to keep looking in hopes of finding that perfect slot. In devotional life, which features the purified version of everything, including work, there is one position that is always open. For each individual this spot is available, and just because one person takes it up doesn’t mean that others are eliminated from candidacy. If there is a single pizza pie laying on the kitchen table, should someone eat the entire thing, nothing will be left for anyone else. In the realm governed by the creator of spirit and matter, there are no such hard and fast rules. One minus one can equal three when it comes to His rules, and so a singular position becomes multiple through His will. Yet the issue is that no one wants to fill the position. Its qualifications aren’t too stringent either. If you’re looking for a job in technology, you will likely get a technical interview prior to being added on. The questions can range from the basics on the subject to the deepest nuances of the programming language or piece of technology you are purportedly familiar with. You may have used that technology every day for the past many years, but if you don’t know the answers to the questions asked of you, the employer will think that you are not capable. The screening process with the position offered by the wealthiest person in the world is not so stringent. He simply asks that you have a desire to offer time, to lend an ear to transcendental topics in a submissive mood. Who isn’t qualified for this? A child lends time to hearing by watching children’s television series likeSesame Street and Barney. The retired person also spends much time in front of the television, watching and hearing. Why then shouldn’t they take a position that pays the most in return, that allows you to work from home, in the car, on the road, or at the office? Why wouldn’t you want to take this wonderful job that is unbelievably rewarding at the same time? So why does no one accept this position? The issue boils down to ownership. The living being would rather falsely think they are the owners of everything, including their fate. Though the flaw of this reasoning is exposed in every step in life, still the belief is there that through just enough manipulation of matter the proper conditions can be found. “Let me work for x number of years so that I can sit down and retire after that. Let me earn some more money so that I won’t have to worry about anything ever again.” Yet to pursue those goals one must work for a living, which involves serving a higher entity. The person may not be any better than you are, but in the realm of business they are in the superior position and you are in the inferior one. Even the owner of the company has to provide service to the customers, be they people in a store or a large business interested in purchasing the product or service offered. Thus there is no question of full autonomy. Rather, there is complete reliance on the efforts of others. Through the illusion fostered by material nature, the living being doesn’t recognize this fact, that they are forced to accommodate the direction of other people who may or may not have their best interests at heart. Taking the position with the highest living being is also difficult because not much is known about Him, at least in the beginning. There are competing and sometimes contradicting visions of the Supreme Lord, and they don’t all portray Him to be nice. Sometimes He is depicted as angry and vengeful, while other times His personality is denied. “If you do worship a God, perhaps you should dedicate your life to praying for things. Instead of relying on your bosses and customers to give you happiness, run to the house of worship and pray as sincerely as you can.” Yet the true position of the Supreme Personality has no relation to these things. The job He has open is not for securing the necessities of life which are already provided to the lower species like the animals. The living entities are naturally prone to working. There is a vibrant spirit within each entity for a reason. With that active spirit comes a potential for action, which produces fruits. Instead of toiling to get temporary rewards that are short-lived in the happiness they provide, why not take to a lifetime engagement that you are already qualified for? That full-time role is known as servant of God. One accepts the position by first hearing about it. Lend an ear to transcendental discourses about Bhagavan, whose original form is so attractive that He is addressed as Krishna. Krishna is the origin of life and matter, the supreme enjoyer, and the best friend of the living entities. Working with your friends is not always the best idea, as they can take advantage of your relationship, using it as an excuse to put in a lackluster effort. They might also get offended if you correct their mistakes using a stern tone. Working for Krishna does not have these issues. In fact, the more you work for Him, the more your friendship with Him strengthens. In the highest state of service, the worshiper cannot be stopped from offering their love. Should Krishna desire you to cease and desist, you will continue anyway, in spite of what He says. The gopis of Vrindavana loved Krishna in this way, and He was forced to admit that there was no way for Him, the all-powerful Supreme Lord, to repay their kindness. Hearing about Krishna plants the seed of devotion, which is then watered through actual practice of bhakti-yoga, ordevotional service. This is the work portion of the position. You get hired simply by hearing, and you maintain your status as an employed worker by regularly chanting, “Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare”. The hours of operation are flexible, but the recommendation of the hiring manager is that you chant this mantra at least sixteen rounds a day on a set of japa beads. You pick when you want to chant, but you should nevertheless make sure that the rounds are completed each day. During the training period, perhaps you can’t do sixteen rounds a day, but you should at least do one or two, successively adding rounds to the routine as you progress. There are also some workplace rules that you should abide by. In the office establishment perhaps you’re not allowed to go on the internet or take breaks that are too long. This is to ensure optimal working conditions, where your productivity will not be hindered. Along similar lines, to get the true effect from chanting, one should refrain from meat eating, gambling, intoxication andillicit sex. Let’s say that you reach the threshold of sixteen rounds of chanting each day. Then what? Can you get promoted? Where do you go from there? Is there another job that you jump to? Actually, the more one practices bhakti the more they enjoy it. The more one gives service to Krishna, the more their love for Him grows. Isn’t that how an ideal job should operate? Shouldn’t you love going to work every day and miss it when you have a day off? Shri Krishna keeps the position open, just waiting for you to fill it. A deluded consciousness stuck in an endless pit of sense gratification and fear over the temporary nature of things precludes one from voluntarily taking up service to Krishna, but at any time the necessary change in attitude can come. Therefore the exalted Vaishnava acharyas take up the difficult job of actively recruiting new employees, knowing full well that every person really wants to serve God, but they just may not be aware of it. Through the sound of the holy name, hearing about the Supreme Lord, the spark of devotion can be ignited, and an army of transcendentalists can soon take up their real occupational duty: devotional service. In Closing: To land a new job you may be hoping, Have to then search for one that is open. Candidate must be qualified for the position, Thus grilled with questions like an inquisition. To give right answers your hopes depend upon, If you fail the test, chance for new job gone. Shri Krishna keeps best job open for you, Only requirement is hearing in right mood. Though it’s open to all, no one seems to want it, But take it when you’re ready, you won’t regret it.

Stunning Examples of Macro Photography

Macro photography is close-up photography, typically of very tiny subjects. Classically a macro photography is one in which the size of the subject on the negative is greater than life size. Photography can serve as a nice source of inspiration. The word �macro� is used very insecurely and tends to mean any photographic situation where you get close to the theme. Real macro photography is where you are working around 1:1 ratio and closer thereby giving an image on film that is equal in size or larger than the subject being photographed. Macro photography is close-up photography. There are many ways to attack macro photography and some are much more luxurious than others. Here in this showcase, we present a stunning collection of macro photography taken byOleg Serkiz. Have a Look!

Study Finds Surprising Arctic Methane Emission Source

A new airborne study with NASA contributions measured surprising levels of the potent greenhouse gas methane coming from cracks in Arctic sea ice and areas of partial sea ice cover. This image was taken over the Arctic Ocean at a latitude of approximately 71 degrees North on April 15, 2010. (Credit: NASA/JPL)                                                            Science Daily  — The fragile and rapidly changing Arctic region is home to large reservoirs of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. As Earth's climate warms, the methane, frozen in reservoirs stored in Arctic tundra soils or marine sediments, is vulnerable to being released into the atmosphere, where it can add to global warming. Now a multi-institutional study by Eric Kort of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., has uncovered a surprising and potentially important new source of Arctic methane: the ocean itself.

Kort, a JPL postdoctoral scholar affiliated with the Keck Institute of Space Studies at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, led the analysis while he was a student at Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. The study was conducted as part of the HIAPER Pole-to-Pole Observations (HIPPO) airborne campaign, which flew a specially instrumented National Science Foundation (NSF)/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Gulfstream V aircraft over the Pacific Ocean from nearly pole to pole, collecting atmospheric measurements from Earth's surface to an altitude of 8.7 miles (14 kilometers). The campaign, primarily funded by NSF with additional funding from NCAR, NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, was designed to improve our understanding of where greenhouse gases are originating and being stored in the Earth system.

During five HIPPO flights over the Arctic from 2009 to 2010, Kort's team observed increased methane levels while flying at low altitudes over the remote Arctic Ocean, north of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. The methane level was about one-half percent larger than normal background levels.

But where was the methane coming from? The team detected no carbon monoxide in the atmosphere that would point to possible contributions from human combustion activities. In addition, based on the time of year, location and nature of the emissions, it was extremely unlikely the methane was coming from high-latitude wetlands or geologic reservoirs.

By comparing locations of the enhanced methane levels with airborne measurements of carbon monoxide, water vapor and ozone, they pinpointed a source: the ocean surface, through cracks in Arctic sea ice and areas of partial sea ice cover. The cracks expose open Arctic seawater, allowing the ocean to interact with the air, and methane in the surface waters to escape into the atmosphere. The team detected no enhanced methane levels when flying over areas of solid ice.

Kort said previous studies by others had measured high concentrations of methane in Arctic surface waters, but before now no one had predicted that these enhanced levels of ocean methane would find their way to the overlying atmosphere.

So how is the methane being produced? The scientists aren't yet sure, but Kort hinted biological production from living things in Arctic surface waters may be a likely culprit. "It's possible that as large areas of sea ice melt and expose more ocean water, methane production may increase, leading to larger methane emissions," he said. He said future studies will be needed to understand the enhanced methane levels and associated emission processes and to measure their total contribution to overall Arctic methane levels.

"While the methane levels we detected weren't particularly large, the potential source region, the Arctic Ocean, is vast, so our finding could represent a noticeable new global source of methane," he added. "As Arctic sea ice cover continues to decline in a warming climate, this source of methane may well increase. It's important that we recognize the potential contribution from this source of methane to avoid falsely interpreting any changes observed in Arctic methane levels in the future."

The study, published April 22 in Nature Geoscience, included participation from JPL and Caltech; NSF, Arlington, Va.; NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, Colo.; the University of Colorado's Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Boulder; Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey; Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogota, Colombia; and Science and Technology Corporation, Boulder, Colo. JPL is a division of Caltech.

Following Life's Chemistry to the Earliest Branches On the Tree of Life

Phylometabolic tree of carbon fixation. Each small black network represents a carbon-fixation pathway, and the tree describes the evolutionary process that connects them. In red are identified environmental driving forces. Through integrating phylogenetics with metabolic constraints, phylometabolic analysis allows a clear description down to the root of the tree, and shows how carbon-fixation structured the deep history of life on Earth. (Credit: Braakman and Smith, doi/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002455.g005)

Science Daily  — In a study published in PLoS Computational Biology, the Santa Fe Institute's Rogier Braakman and D. Eric Smith map the development of life-sustaining chemistry to the history of early life and trace six methods of carbon fixation seen in modern life back to a single ancestral form.

Carbon fixation -- life's mechanism for making carbon dioxide biologically useful -- forms the biggest bridge between Earth's non-living chemistry and its living biosphere. All organisms that fix carbon do so in one of six ways. These six mechanisms have overlaps, but it was previously unclear which of the six types came first, and how their development interweaved with environmental and biological changes.

The authors used a method that creates "trees" of evolutionary relatedness based on genetic sequences and metabolic traits. From this, they were able to reconstruct the complete early evolutionary history of biological carbon-fixation, relating all ways in which life today performs this function.

The earliest form of carbon fixation identified by scientists achieved a special kind of built-in robustness -- not seen in modern cells -- by layering multiple carbon-fixing mechanisms. This redundancy allowed early life to compensate for a lack of refined control over its internal chemistry, and formed a template for the later splits that created the earliest major branches in the tree of life.

For example, the first major life-form split came with the earliest appearance of oxygen on Earth, causing the ancestors of blue-green algae and most other bacteria to separate from the branch that includes Archaea, which, outside of bacteria, are the other major early group of single-celled microorganisms.

"It seems likely that the earliest cells were rickety assemblies whose parts were constantly malfunctioning and breaking down," explains Smith, an SFI External Professor. "How can any metabolism be sustained with such shaky support? The key is concurrent and constant redundancy."

Once early cells had more refined enzymes and membranes, allowing greater control over metabolic chemistry, environmental driving forces directed life's unfolding. These forces included changes in oxygen level and alkalinity, as well as minimization of the amount of energy (in the form of ATP) used to create biomass.

In other words, the environment drove major divergences in predictable ways -- in contrast to the common widely held belief that chance dominated evolutionary innovation and that rewinding and replaying the evolutionary tape would lead to an irreconcilably different tree of life.

"Mapping cell function onto genetic history gives us a clear picture of the physiology that led to the major foundational divergences of evolution," explains Braakman, an SFI Omidyar Fellow. "This highlights the central role of basic chemistry and physics in driving early evolution."

With the ancestral form uncovered and evolutionary drivers pinned to branching points in the tree, the researchers now want to make the study more mathematically formal and further analyze the early evolution of metabolism.