HIV hides in brain

HIV hides in brain

FRESHSCIENCE

HIV can hide out in the brain, protected from the immune system and antiviral drugs, Dr Lachlan Gray and his colleagues at Monash University and the Burnet Institute have found. Their discovery is an important step in understanding the link between HIV infection and HIV dementia, and is important for the eradication of HIV in general. “The persistence of the virus in the brain compromises the brain’s normal function, and leads to the death of neurons and to clinical dementia,” Lachlan says. In fact, about one in five of those infected by HIV ends up with dementia. “We believe our findings will aid the development of novel drugs that will prevent HIV using the brain as a sanctuary, and help to shape future eradication strategies.” Lachlan’s work is being presented for the first time in public through Fresh Science, a communication boot camp for early career scientists held at the Melbourne Museum. He was one of 16 winners from across Australia. Lachlan has been examining the life cycle of the virus to understand better how it survives within the brain. “We’ve identified changes in the way the virus reproduces, which allows it to keep a low profile and persist undetected in the brain.” At present, people living with HIV must rely on the continued use of antiviral drugs to control their infection. “Viral persistence is a major barrier to the cure of AIDS. Modern drugs are very good at controlling the virus, but they are unable to eradicate it from ‘sanctuary’ sites like the brain,” Lachlan’s supervisor, Associate Professor Melissa Churchill says. “Unfortunately, brain infection often leads to dementia which can be very debilitating. Somewhat more concerning, HIV is now the commonest cause of dementia in people under the age of 40, and is placing an extra burden on our mental health services.” Lachlan’s research is part of a larger project aiming to trial new drugs that could potentially eradicate or even cure HIV. Lachlan Gray is one of 16 early-career scientists unveiling their research to the public for the first time thanks to Fresh Science, a national program sponsored by the Australian Government.

Wildfires destroying soil

Wildfires destroying soil

FRESHSCIENCE

"There are more fires each year in the northern third of the country than anywhere else in Australia." Image: negaprion/iStockphoto Decreasing the frequency of wild fires in northern Australia would lead to an increase in the amount of carbon stored in the soil, significantly lowering greenhouse gas emissions, according to CSIRO ecologist, Dr Anna Richards. Fire is part of the natural cycle of northern Australia’s savannas. But what’s the best regime? Anna’s studies show that reducing fire frequencies results in greater carbon capture. Up to four times more greenhouse gases are stored underground. And that means they are not going up in smoke. There are more fires each year in the northern third of the country than anywhere else in Australia. These fires account for about 3 per cent of the nation’s greenhouse gas emissions. While fire is important for maintaining a healthy environment in northern Australia, Anna says, scientists have become concerned at the increase in frequency and intensity of wild fires over the past century. “About half the Top End is burnt each year and this is changing the environment as well as releasing large quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.” Until now, it was assumed that it was really only the amount of smoke that contributed to these emissions, but Anna has shown that things are much more complicated than that. There is an interaction with the soil as well. “The frequency of fires affects the chemistry of the soil and the workings of the plant roots—hence the capacity of the soil to store carbon, “she says. “In general, the greater the frequency of fires, the more carbon is released from the soil, and vice versa.” Using measurements of soil carbon from long-term fire experiments conducted near Darwin and sophisticated computer modelling, Anna found that reducing fire frequency to one fire every four to six years is best for storing carbon. Her work was published recently in the international journal Ecosystems. “Until now, scientists have known little about the impact of different fire management options on the amount of carbon stored in soil. These findings are significant for managing carbon in northern Australia, particularly for programs that use indigenous fire management practices to reduce fire frequency and severity,” she said. Anna is conducting further research on the effects of fire on soil carbon as part of the Tiwi Carbon Study in the Tiwi Islands, north of Darwin. The Tiwi Carbon Study is a partnership between CSIRO, the Tiwi Land Council, the Tiwi College and Tiwi Forests. Anna Richards is one of 16 winners of Fresh Science, a national competition for early-career scientists who are unveiling their research to the public for the first time. Her training and challenges have included presenting her discoveries in verse at a Melbourne pub, and to schools in Melbourne and country Victoria.

Purer water from “super sand”

Purer water from “super sand”

MONASH UNIVERSITY

A low-cost coating applied to sand could provide a source of wide-scale water purification to people in developing countries, saving millions of lives every year. Sand, an abundant natural resource, has been used to clean polluted water for six millennia. Filtration using sand in its natural form is endorsed by the World Health Organization (WHO), as a water purification process. Now, a team led by Dr Mainak Majumder from the Monash Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, together with researchers from Rice University in Houston, have significantly enhanced the natural filtering properties of sand by coating it with a nanomaterial called graphite oxide (GO). The researchers changed the structure of graphite, a material found in pencils, to dramatically increase its surface area before coating coarse grains of sand. Increasing the surface area of the sand caused a corresponding increase in the material’s ability to filter contaminants. The research, published recently in ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, indicated that untreated sand became saturated after ten minutes of filtration, while the GO-coated ‘super sand’ absorbed contaminants for more than 50 minutes. Dr Majumder said the super sand’s performance was comparable to some commercially available activated carbon materials, which are used for filtration purposes. “By increasing its surface area, we’ve improved the filtering capability of sand so that it is not only more effective in removing contaminants, but still filters relatively quickly, making it a viable option for water purification.” Dr Majumder said the other big advantage of the super sand is that it is relatively cheap to produce. “Given that the functional carbon can be synthesised using room temperature processes and also from cheap graphite sources, such as mining by-product, it is likely to be cost-efficient.” Access to clean water is a significant challenge for the global population. The WHO reports that, annually, access to safer water could prevent 1.4 million deaths from diarrhoea; 500,000 deaths from malaria and 860,000 deaths from malnutrition.  “We hope that in the future our technology will help to improve the living conditions of people facing water scarcity”, said Dr Majumder.

Honey helps heals wounds

Honey helps heals wounds

THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

"Applying a manuka honey gel throughout healing led to 27 per cent faster healing times." Image:Materio/iStockphoto A simple application of honey to horses' leg wounds results in smaller wound sizes and faster healing time, University of Sydney researchers have found. Honey has been used to treat wounds in humans since ancient Egypt, but this study, using manuka honey from New Zealand, is the first time in the world a clinical trial has been conducted in horses. "Wounds in horses, particularly leg wounds, have long healing periods. But we found applying a manuka honey gel throughout healing led to 27 percent faster healing times," said lead researcher Dr Andrea Bischofberger. "Wounds in horses which received no treatment took an average of 64 days to heal, while those treated with manuka honey gel took 47 days to heal," said Dr Bischofberger, who will present her findings this Friday 1 July at a veterinary science conference. "In our pilot study we used pure honey, but in our second study we used a water-based manuka honey gel of 66 percent honey. When applied for 12 days we found these wounds healed just as well as those treated with pure honey." Using a manuka honey gel means expensive bandages can be avoided, Dr Bischofberger explained. "With its faster wound healing times and its bandage-free application, the manuka honey gel solution is an extremely versatile and affordable topical wound product." In a third study Dr Bischofberger and colleagues investigated how manuka honey actually worked to speed up wound healing. While it seems to have an anti-bacterial effect and immune-modifying effect on the key initial healing phase, the inflammatory stage, the honey's exact healing mechanism is still unclear. "What we do know is treating wounds with manuka honey leads to healthier tissue regrowth," Dr Bischofberger said. "Wounds treated with manuka also showed improved new blood vessel and skin surface growth compared to control wounds," Dr Bischofberger added. Dr Bischofberger is a Swiss veterinarian currently with the Research and Clinical Training Unit (REaCT) at the University Veterinary Teaching Hospital in Camden (UVTHC), a part of the University of Sydney. REaCT Director, Professor Andrew Dart, is a surgical specialist and expert on the complications associated with lower leg wound healing in horses, and is supervising Dr Bischofberger's research. "Wound healing in horses' limbs, particularly lower limbs, is usually a long and complicated process compared to wounds on the body," he said. "The results of these studies have led to significant national and international interest both from the animal and human fields. There is potential for the manuka honey gel to be used across species with similar beneficial effects."

Private Space Industry Works to Replace the Shuttle

Private Space Industry Works to Replace the Shuttle

With the shuttle's final mission next week, the private sector has some work to do.

BRIT­TANY SAUSER 

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NASA has released the first edition of its new bi-monthy newsletter that focuses on "happenings" in the agency's commercial spaceflight development program. The first newsletter is devoted to the progress made in the commercial crew development program, which recently awarded four companies money to develop spacecraft that can carry astronauts to space. The progress made by these companies--SpaceX, Boeing, Blue Origin, and Sierra Nevada Corporation--is small. But with the space shuttle's final mission scheduled for July 8, the pressure is on for these companies to work quickly and efficiently to meet their goals.

"The space shuttle's retirement gives commercial companies more incentive to push the development of their systems," says Craig Steidle, the president of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation. "They are excited about what's coming up, but the pressure is getting financial support, to make sure we have the money to allow them to do spaceflight demonstrations." 

Steidle is optimistic that the commercial companies working on human spaceflight will meet their goals, and we will see the first astronaut launch to space on a commercial spacecraft in 2017.

Here's a round up of what these companies are up to:

Boeing is developing the CST-100 spacecraft, and perhaps achieved the greatest milestone for its spacecraft thus far by completing its delta Systems Definition Review--an analysis of the design and requirements of the spacecraft and its subsystems, including structures, thermal, electrical, propulsion, life support, software and avionics. According to the company'spress release,

The Delta SDR enables a common understanding of the design baseline as the team progresses toward a system-level Preliminary Design Review (PDR), which will further mature the system design and ensure it meets all requirements. Under the second round of NASA's Commercial Crew Development Space Act Agreement, Boeing expects to complete its System PDR no later than early spring 2012.

Boeing is preparing to gather performance data on the spacecraft's launch abort system and service module fuel tank; evaluate vehicle ascent performance in wind tunnel testing; and build on earlier landing air bag and parachute demonstrations with more in-depth investigations.

In June Boeing will present a plan for identifying and mitigating potential spaceflight safety hazards for the spacecraft. 

SpaceX meanwhile is developing the Falcon 9 rocket and the Dragon spacecraft, which are both test flight proven. With the new funding the company is focusing on the development of a launch abort system and improving the design of the crew systems. SpaceX completed its initial milestone, a kickoff meeting with NASA officials to review requirements and present design status updates. In July, the company will have to present data, documentation, and risk assessments to show that the launch abort system concept is technically sound. 

Sierra Nevada Corporation is building the Dream Chaser, a reusable piloted spacecraft that will be launched on an Atlas V rocket. It also had initial kickoff meeting and Systems Requirement Review and will present test results on the aerodynamic and thermal performance of the airfoil for the Dream Chaser's tip fins. 

Blue Origin's crew transportation system will be a reusable biconic space vehicle that has been launched on an Atlas V rocket and then on the company's own reusable booster system. After initial meetings the company improved the overall space vehicle design. The next step will be ground and flight tests of its pusher escape system for astronauts, and accelerating the engine design for the reusable booster system.

Genome Editing, Lab Grown Blood Vessels, and TB Vaccine for Diabetes

Biomedical News: Genome Editing, Lab Grown Blood Vessels, and TB Vaccine for Diabetes

Editing the genome to correct a genetic defect in live animals, blood vessels grown from cultured skin cells, and TB vaccine improves diabetes.

EMILY SINGER

Genome editing to treat hemophilia

For the first time, researchers have used a precise method of editing the genome to correct a genetic defect in live animals. In this case, researchers treated mice with hemophilia, replacing a blood clotting protein called human factor 9. After the treatment, the mice produced enough of the protein to make their blood clot normally.

The editing technology relies on proteins known as zinc fingers, which bind to specific pieces of DNA to regulate nearby genes. By engineering different zinc fingers and attaching them to a gene cutting enzyme, researchers have created precise editing tools that can snip a specific piece of the genome and insert a new gene. Researchers hope the technology will help overcome one of the major problems with existing forms of gene therapy, which allow the gene to insert itself into the genome randomly. That can disrupt important genes, in some cases causing leukemia.

According to the New York Times,

[Katherine High, a hematologist and gene therapy expert at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia] said it was too soon to try the technique in people, given that an adequate treatment for hemophilia already exists. She plans to test it next in dogs, which are a standard model for new hemophilia treatments. One of the possible problems with the technique is that the zinc fingers sometimes cut at sites other than the intended target site.

Patients get lab-grown blood vessels

Three dialysis patients in Poland have been successfully implanted with blood vessels grown from cultured skin cells. The engineered essels, which were about a foot long and nearly five millimeters wide, were used as shunt to provide access to the blood for dialysis. Shunts created from patients' own vessels or synthetic materials are notoriously prone to failure, according to a release from the American Heart Association.

At follow-up exams up to eight months after implantation, none of the patients had developed an immune reaction to the implants, and the vessels withstood the high pressure and frequent needle punctures required for dialysis.

Investigators previously showed that using vessels individually created from a patient's own skin cells reduced the rate of shunt complications 2.4-fold over a 3-year period. The availability of off-the-shelf vessels could avoid the expense and months-long process involved in creating custom vessels for each patient, making the technique feasible for widespread use.

The blood vessels, which are made by Cytograft Tissue Engineering, could provide a cheaper alternative to those made from a patient's own cells. "This version, built from a master donor, is available off the shelf and at a dramatically reduced cost," estimated at $6,000 to $10,000, Cytograft Chief Executive Todd McAllister told the Associated Press. The grafts also have the potential to be used in lower limb bypass to route blood around diseased arteries, to repair congenital heart defects in pediatric patients, and to fix damaged arteries in soldiers, who might otherwise lose a limb, said McAllister.

A TB vaccine improves type 1 diabetes.

A small clinical trial of people with severe type 1 diabetes shows that bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG), a generic drug developed as a vaccine against tuberculosis, can reverse the disease, at least temporarily.

"We found that even low doses of BCG could transiently reverse type 1 diabetes in human patients," said Denise Faustman, director of the Massachusetts General Hospital Immunobiology Laboratory, in a release from the hospital. "One of the key components of this study was our development of a way to measure the death of the autoreactive T cells that destroy the ability of the pancreas to produce insulin. Not only did we observe and measure the death of these self-targeting immune cells, but we also saw evidence of restoration of insulin production even in patients who've had type 1 diabetes for more than a decade."

According to the release,

BCG is known to elevate levels of the immune modulator tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which previous work in Faustman's lab showed can temporarily eliminate the abnormal white blood cells responsible for type 1 diabetes in both humans and mice.

Most participants treated with BCG showed increases in both the death of autoreactive T cells and in levels of the protective regulatory T cells. A temporary but statistically significant elevation in C-peptide levels, suggesting a restoration of insulin production, was also observed in the BCG-treated patients. Unexpectedly, the same responses were seen in one of the placebo-treated patients who, after enrolling in the study, coincidently developed infection with the Epstein-Barr virus, which is known to induce expression of TNF.

The research was presented Monday at the American Diabetes Association scientific sessions in San Diego

Lovotics': The New Science of Engineering Human, Robot Love

"After industrial, service and social robots, Lovotics introduces a new generation of robots, with the ability to love and be loved by humans"

Bi-directional love between a human and a robot -- realistic, genuine, biologically-inspired love -- is the goal of Hooman Samani, an artificial intelligence researcher at the Social Robotics Lab at the National University of Singapore. He calls this new discipline Lovotics.

Across nearly a dozen papers, he has developed a comprehensive artificial intelligence simulation of the emotional and endocrine systems underpinning love in humans, allowing his robots to be "an active participant in the communicative process, [adjusting] its affective state depending on its interactions with humans."

Samani's robots are equipped with both an emotional and a hormonal climate. They display a spectrum of emotions, from happiness to disgust. Based on the videos Samani has produced, they appear to experience something akin to jealousy, and are only content when being stroked by their human companions.

For simplicity's sake, these robots resemble over-size Tribbles. They trill like R2D2, vibrate, move about and flash LED lights in order to qualify their moods.

Whether or not this work "could lead to a revolution in the way humans and robots interact and love each other," it's fascinating to watch a researcher pole-vault right over the question of whether or not humans can ever accept robots into the realm of whether or not we will find them as indispensable as pets, friends and -- dare we say it -- lovers.

Drug Reverses 'Accelerated Aging' in Human Cells

Age reducer: Cells taken from patients with a rapid aging disease were treated with the drug rapamycin. In the top image, a toxic protein called progerin (green) is spread evenly throughout the cells. In the treated cells at bottom, the protein was concentrated and removed much more effectively.
Credit: Science/AAAS

BIOMEDICINE

Drug Reverses 'Accelerated Aging' in Human Cells

The discovery has implications for the treatment of several diseases—as well as normal aging in healthy people.

• BY KENRICK VEZINA

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The drug rapamycin has been found to reverse the effects of Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, a fatal genetic disease that resembles rapid aging, in cells taken from patients with the disease. Rapamycin, an immunosuppressant drug used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, has already been shown to extend life span in healthy mice. Researchers hope the findings will provide new insight into treating progeria as well as other age-related diseases.

Skin cells from patients with progeria show a slew of defects: deformities in their membranes, decreased growth, and early death. Kan Cao, an associate professor of cell biology and molecular genetics at the University of Maryland, and her colleagues found that rapamycin could reverse these defects by enhancing the cells' ability to degrade the protein progerin, which accumulates in abnormal amounts in progeria patients. The study was published today in the journal Science Translational Medicine.

It's not yet clear whether the drug will have similar effects on animals or patients. But progeria researchers are planning a clinical trial of rapamycin. No treatments currently exist for the disease, which is typically fatal by age 12. Children with progeria have health issues typically associated with old age, including balding, hardened skin, pain in joints, hip dislocations, and heart disease.

Researchers say the findings could be relevant beyond this rare genetic disease. Although accumulation of progerin is associated with progeria, the protein also accumulates in small amounts in normal cells, and may be partially responsible for the aging process.

Some age-related diseases, such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, also result in defects in the cells' "trash-removal" system, says Dimitri Krainc, associate professor of neurology at Harvard Medical School and one of the authors of the paper. In fact, previous research has shown that the failure of cellular maintenance is a key component of aging. "With normal aging ... you start accumulating by-products of normal cell functions," explains Krainc. Rapamycin may be able to help clean up other toxic proteins as well, though this study only looked at its effects on progerin.

"I would hope that the study increases the search for molecules to replace rapamycin," which don't have the immunosuppressant side effects, says David Sinclair, director of the Paul F. Glenn Laboratories for the Biological Mechanisms of Aging at Harvard Medical School. Such alternatives could be a major step forward in the fight against aging, says Sinclair, who was not involved in the current study.