Ulcerative colitis is like an unwanted guest that overstays its welcome in your colon. It's a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) where the lining of the colon and rectum becomes inflamed and develops ulcers. Think of it as a cranky protest in your digestive system, causing symptoms like abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and bloody stools.
The exact cause of ulcerative colitis is still a mystery, but it's thought to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and immune system factors. It's like your body's immune system throws a tantrum and mistakenly attacks the healthy cells in your colon.
Managing ulcerative colitis involves a combination of medications, lifestyle changes, and sometimes surgery if things get really out of hand. It's a chronic condition, so it's all about finding ways to control the symptoms and live your life as normally as possible.
It's like dealing with a misbehaving houseguest—you have to figure out how to make them behave or, at the very least, minimise the chaos they create.
Boosting growth hormone (GH) as people age can have various potential benefits, such as maintaining muscle mass, reducing fat, and supporting overall health. While natural GH production decreases with age, there are several strategies you can consider to help optimize its levels. It's important to note that these strategies may not lead to the same results as pharmaceutical GH replacement therapy, and you should always consult a healthcare professional before making significant changes to your lifestyle or considering GH supplementation. Here are some natural ways to support GH production:
Get Enough Sleep:
Adequate sleep is essential for stimulating GH secretion. Aim for 7-9 hours of quality sleep per night. Deep sleep stages, particularly during the first few hours of sleep, are when GH production is at its peak.
Manage Stress:
Chronic stress can increase cortisol levels, which can inhibit GH production. Practice stress-reduction techniques like meditation, yoga, or mindfulness to lower stress levels.
Exercise Regularly:
Engage in both cardiovascular and resistance training exercises. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and strength training can stimulate GH production. Aim for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity exercise per week.
Maintain a Healthy Diet:
A well-balanced diet with adequate protein, healthy fats, and complex carbohydrates is crucial. Include foods rich in amino acids, such as arginine and ornithine, which can support GH production. Some examples include lean meats, fish, nuts, and legumes.
Intermittent Fasting:
Some studies suggest that intermittent fasting can increase GH levels. Fasting for 14-16 hours each day may help promote GH release. However, consult a healthcare professional before starting any fasting regimen.
Avoid Excessive Sugar and Insulin Spikes:
High sugar intake can lead to insulin resistance, which may inhibit GH secretion. Limit your consumption of sugary foods and beverages, and choose complex carbohydrates instead.
Optimize Your Nutrition:
Make sure you're getting essential vitamins and minerals, including vitamin D, zinc, magnesium, and B vitamins, as they play a role in GH production. Consult with a healthcare professional or nutritionist if you're concerned about deficiencies.
Reduce Alcohol and Caffeine:
Excessive alcohol and caffeine consumption can negatively impact sleep quality and hormone regulation. Limit these substances, especially in the hours leading up to bedtime.
Maintain a Healthy Body Weight:
Obesity can impair GH secretion. Managing your weight through a balanced diet and regular exercise can help optimize GH levels.
Consider Supplements:
Some supplements like arginine, ornithine, glutamine, and GABA are believed to support GH release. However, their effectiveness can vary, and it's crucial to consult with a healthcare professional before using any supplements.
Remember that the effects of these lifestyle changes on GH levels can vary from person to person, and the results may be modest. Consult with a healthcare provider, such as an endocrinologist, before considering GH supplementation or any significant changes to your routine, as there may be risks associated with altering your hormone levels. They can provide personalized guidance based on your specific needs and health conditions.
Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity, refers to
the brain's remarkable ability to reorganize and adapt throughout an
individual's life in response to various experiences, learning, injury, or
environmental changes. This process involves the brain's capacity to rewire its
neural connections, modify its structure, and adjust its functions.
Neuroplasticity is a fundamental property of the brain that underlies learning,
memory, recovery from injury, and even the development of new skills and habits.
There are two main types of neuroplasticity:
Structural Plasticity: This type of plasticity involves
physical changes in the brain's structure. It includes the creation of new
neurons (neurogenesis), the formation of new synaptic connections
(synaptogenesis), and the pruning or elimination of unused or unnecessary
connections (synaptic pruning). Structural plasticity allows the brain to adapt
to new information, experiences, and skills.
Functional Plasticity: Functional plasticity refers to the
brain's ability to redistribute functions across different areas in response to
damage or changes in demand. If a specific brain region is injured or less
active, nearby or distant regions can compensate for the lost function. For
example, after a stroke, other parts of the brain may take over some of the functions
that were impaired due to the stroke.
Neuroplasticity occurs throughout an individual's life, but
it is most prominent during early development (critical periods) when the brain
is highly adaptable and flexible. However, even in adulthood, the brain retains
a degree of plasticity, allowing for ongoing learning and adaptation.
Several factors can influence and enhance neuroplasticity:
Experience and Learning: Engaging in new activities,
acquiring new skills, and learning new information can stimulate neuroplastic
changes in the brain. Repeatedly practicing a skill or exposing oneself to
novel experiences can strengthen neural connections.
Environmental Enrichment: A stimulating and enriched
environment, both mentally and physically, can promote neuroplasticity. This
includes exposure to diverse stimuli, social interaction, and physical
exercise.
Neurorehabilitation: After brain injuries or conditions like
stroke, rehabilitation programs that focus on specific tasks and exercises can
help promote functional recovery through neuroplastic changes.
Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators: Chemical signals in
the brain, such as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, play a role in
regulating neuroplasticity. For example, substances like brain-derived neurotrophic
factor (BDNF) are known to promote synaptic plasticity.
Genetics: Individual genetic factors can influence the
extent and rate of neuroplastic changes.
Understanding neuroplasticity has significant implications
for various fields, including education, rehabilitation, and neuroscience. It
highlights the importance of lifelong learning and the potential for recovery
and adaptation following brain injuries or neurological disorders. Researchers
continue to study neuroplasticity to uncover ways to harness its potential for
improving cognitive function, treating brain-related conditions, and enhancing
human performance.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, which is a chemical
messenger in the brain that plays a crucial role in various physiological and
psychological processes. It is a member of the catecholamine family of
neurotransmitters, along with norepinephrine and epinephrine, and it is
produced in several areas of the brain, including the substantia nigra and the
ventral tegmental area.
Here are some key aspects of dopamine:
Neurotransmitter Function: Dopamine functions as a
neurotransmitter, transmitting signals between nerve cells (neurons) in the
brain. It is involved in the communication between neurons and is essential for
various cognitive, emotional, and motor functions.
Reward and Pleasure: One of the most well-known functions of
dopamine is its role in the brain's reward system. When you experience
something pleasurable or rewarding, such as eating delicious food or receiving
praise, dopamine is released in the brain. This release of dopamine is thought
to reinforce behaviors associated with pleasure, encouraging you to seek out
those rewarding experiences.
Motivation and Goal-Oriented Behavior: Dopamine is also
linked to motivation and goal-oriented behavior. It helps to drive individuals
to pursue goals, achieve tasks, and engage in activities that are important for
their survival and well-being.
Movement Control: In addition to its role in reward and
motivation, dopamine is critical for motor control. A deficiency in dopamine
production in certain brain regions can lead to movement disorders such as
Parkinson's disease. Medications used to treat Parkinson's often involve
increasing dopamine levels in the brain.
Mood Regulation: Dopamine plays a role in mood regulation
and emotional well-being. Imbalances in dopamine levels have been associated
with mood disorders like depression and bipolar disorder.
Attention and Focus: Dopamine also contributes to attention
and focus. It helps you stay alert, concentrate on tasks, and process
information effectively.
Learning and Memory: Dopamine is involved in learning and
memory processes. It helps in the formation of memories and the ability to
learn from experiences.
Addiction: The dopamine reward pathway is implicated in
addiction. Repeated exposure to addictive substances or behaviors can lead to
changes in the brain's dopamine system, making individuals more susceptible to
addiction.
Dysregulation: Dysregulation of the dopamine system has been
implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including
schizophrenia, ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder), and addiction.
Dopamine's complex role in the brain makes it a critical
neurotransmitter for a wide range of functions, from basic motor control to
complex cognitive processes. Imbalances in dopamine levels or dysfunction in
the dopamine system can have significant implications for both physical and
mental health. Understanding dopamine's role in the brain has led to important
advances in the treatment of various neurological and psychiatric conditions.
Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which a substance loses
electrons, becoming more positively charged. This process can occur when a
substance reacts with oxygen or other electronegative elements. The most common
example of oxidation is the rusting of iron when it reacts with oxygen in the
presence of moisture.
In living organisms, oxidation is a crucial
part of various physiological processes. For example, it is involved in the
breakdown of nutrients to release energy in cells. However, oxidation can also
lead to the production of harmful byproducts known as free radicals.
Free Radicals:
Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that contain
unpaired electrons. They are produced naturally in the body during normal
metabolic processes or can be generated due to external factors like pollution,
radiation, or unhealthy lifestyles (e.g., smoking). These free radicals are
unstable and can cause damage to cells and tissues by reacting with and
stealing electrons from other molecules in the body, leading to a chain
reaction of cellular damage.
Antioxidants:
Antioxidants are substances that can neutralize free
radicals by donating electrons without becoming unstable themselves. They act
as a defence system against the harmful effects of oxidative stress caused by
free radicals. Antioxidants play a crucial role in maintaining the overall
health and function of cells and tissues in the body.
The body has its own antioxidant defence system, including
enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, which
help counteract the harmful effects of free radicals. Additionally, many
antioxidants are obtained from the diet, including vitamins C and E,
beta-carotene, selenium, and various phytochemicals found in fruits, vegetables,
nuts, and seeds.
Importance of Antioxidants:
Having an adequate intake of antioxidants is important
because excessive free radicals can lead to oxidative stress, which has been
linked to various health issues, including:
Ageing: Oxidative stress is considered one of the
contributing factors to the ageing process.
Chronic Diseases: It has been associated with several
chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and
neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.
Inflammation: Oxidative stress can trigger inflammation,
which is involved in many diseases.
Cellular Damage: Oxidative stress can damage cellular
components like DNA, proteins, and lipids, impairing cell function
and potential mutations.
In summary, oxidation is a chemical reaction involving the
loss of electrons, and it can produce harmful free radicals. Antioxidants are
essential in neutralizing these free radicals and protecting the body from the
potential damage they can cause. Eating a balanced diet rich in antioxidants is
a key part of maintaining good health and reducing the risk of various diseases
associated with oxidative stress.
The energy cost now strongly depends on the prices of
fossil fuels due to the world's intense fuel dependence on energy production.
This is causing pain in most of the world's nations, and Sri Lanka is no
different. From this perspective, the promotion of biomass as a source of
renewable energy is significant to the country. Given that rice is the nation's
leading food and the crop with the most considerable area under cultivation, it has been
discovered that the rice husk (RH) produced during paddy processing has a
significant potential for producing electricity.
Paddy husk gasification is a process that can be used to
generate electricity from agricultural waste, specifically the husks of rice.
The process involves heating the husks in a gasifier, which breaks down the
biomass into a gas that can power an engine or a turbine to generate
electricity.
The Husk Power Systems (HPS) and Decentralized Energy
Systems India (DESI), two businesses that have successfully offered power
access utilizing this resource, have popularized rice husk-based electricity
generation and supply throughout South Asia. To examine the factors
that make a small-scale rural power supply company profitable and determine
whether a collection of villages can be electrified using a larger facility.
Using a financial analysis of alternative supply alternatives that consider the
residential and commercial electricity demands under various scenarios, Serving
just consumers with low electricity usage results in the electricity-producing
facility only being used to part of its capacity, which raises the cost of supply.
Increased electricity use improves financial viability and considerably helps
high-consumption clients. The feasibility and levelized cost of the collection
are enhanced by integrating rice mill demand, especially during the off-peak
period, with a predominant residential peak demand system. Finally, larger
plants significantly reduce costs to provide a competitive supply. However, the
more critical investment requirement, risks associated with the rice mill's
monopoly supply of husk, organizational challenges related to managing a more
extensive distribution area, and the possibility of plant failure could
negatively impact investor interest.
Here are the steps to use paddy husk gasification for rural
electrification:
Assess the availability of paddy husk: The first step is to
determine the amount of paddy husk available in the rural area. This will help
to determine the size of the gasification system that will be needed.
Choose the gasification system: There are different types of
gasification systems available, including fixed beds, fluidized beds, and
entrained flow gasifiers. The choice of the gasification system will depend on
the amount of paddy husk available and the amount of electricity that needs to
be generated.
Install the gasification system: Once chosen, it
must be installed in the rural area. The design should be located close to
the source of the paddy husk to minimize transportation costs.
Operate the gasification system: It must be operated
properly to ensure electricity is generated efficiently. This involves feeding
the paddy husk into the gasifier and maintaining the appropriate temperature
and pressure.
Distribute the electricity: The generated electricity can be
distributed to the surrounding rural area using a grid or a microgrid. The
distribution system should be designed to meet the needs of the rural
community.
Monitor and maintain the system: It is essential to monitor
the gasification system to ensure that it operates efficiently and to perform
regular maintenance to prevent breakdowns and ensure a long lifespan.
In summary, paddy husk gasification can be a sustainable
solution for rural electrification.
Plant-e is a technology that generates electricity from living plants through a process known as microbial fuel cells (MFCs). MFCs use the natural metabolic processes of certain bacteria to break down organic matter, such as the sugars and other compounds produced by plants during photosynthesis, and generate electricity in the process.
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) have been aptly described by Du et al. (2007) as “bioreactors that convert the energy in the chemical bonds of organic compounds into electrical energy through the catalytic activity of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions”.
In Plant-e's technology, electrodes are placed in the soil near the roots of the plants, and the bacteria living in the soil around the roots consume the organic matter and produce electrons, which can then be captured and used to generate electricity. The technology has potential applications in renewable energy, agriculture, and environmental monitoring.
While the technology is still in its early stages of development, it has shown promise as a sustainable and environmentally-friendly alternative to traditional forms of energy generation.
Biorefinery can be defined as a framework or a structure in which biomass is utilized optimally to produce multiple products and tries to be self-sustaining and not harmful to the environment.
A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and value-added chemicals from biomass. Biorefinery is analogous to today’s petroleum refinery, which has multiple fuels and products from petroleum. By producing several products, a biorefinery takes advantage of the various components in biomass and their intermediates, maximizing the value derived from the biomass feedstock.
Global issues such as environmental problems and food security are currently of concern to all of us. Circular economy is a promising approach towards resolving these global issues. The production of bioenergy and biomaterials can sustain the energy–environment nexus as well as substitute the devoid of petroleum as the production feedstock, thereby contributing to a cleaner and low-carbon environment. In addition, the assimilation of waste into bioprocesses for the production of valuable products and metabolites leads towards a sustainable circular bioeconomy.
Recent research suggests that metformin, a medicine used to treat type 2 diabetes, may have the ability to slow down the aging process by activating cellular pathways through AMPK that promote youthful cellular functioning, making it a promising candidate for an anti-aging drug. This is particularly good news for individuals with diabetes, as high blood glucose levels not only cause insulin resistance but also accelerate the aging process. Furthermore, studies have shown that metformin has benefits beyond regulating glucose levels and treating diabetes, including protection against cancer and cardiovascular disease, neuroprotection, and weight loss by regulating AMPK-activated pathways that promote healthy metabolism.
Is it possible that a commonly used medication for diabetes could also have anti-aging benefits?
Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) is a small molecule naturally
present in our body. During ageing, levels of AKG decline.
Alpha-ketoglutarate is used by the mitochondria, which
convert this substance into energy, but alpha-ketoglutarate has various other
functions in the body.
How alpha-ketoglutarate extends lifespan
Alpha-ketoglutarate has multiple effects on the ageing
process. Firstly, it has epigenetic effects, which impact the
molecular machinery surrounding DNA that determines which genes are activated
or suppressed. As we age, the epigenome becomes dysregulated, which contributes
to ageing. Alpha-ketoglutarate can help to regulate the epigenome by activating
the TET enzyme, which requires vitamin C to function properly. Also,
alpha-ketoglutarate is involved in carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism and
can help cells maintain metabolic flexibility. It also improves mitochondrial
health and activates AMPK, which is important for metabolic and longevity
regulation.
Furthermore, alpha-ketoglutarate aids the body in detoxification by
helping to eliminate ammonia, a waste product that can accumulate in the body.
It may also provide energy and endurance by fueling the mitochondria. Alpha-ketoglutarate
is involved in maintaining stem cell health and bone and gut metabolism, and
calcium alpha-ketoglutarate can aid in collagen production and reduce fibrosis,
promoting healthy, youthful skin.
The rapidly evolving and expanding use of artificial intelligence (AI) technology is outpacing regulatory and policy efforts to guide its ethical use.
In a Policy Forum, Cason Schmit and colleagues propose a new approach to AI regulation, which involves leveraging two existing legal tools used to manage intellectual property (IP) rights – copyleft licensing and patent trolling.
They call their approach CAITE (Copyleft AI with Trusted Enforcement). The swift development and widespread adoption of AI technology have consistently outpaced regulatory oversight, which has largely resulted in insufficient policy.
However, given AI’s potential impact on nearly every aspect of daily life, regulation ensuring its appropriate and ethical use is sorely needed. To address this need, Schmit et al. propose adapting legal frameworks and mechanisms borrowed from IP law to produce a new and nuanced system of enforcement of ethics in AI applications and training datasets.
By combining “copyleft licensing,” which is traditionally used to enable widespread sharing of created content, and the “patent troll” model, which is often criticized for stifling technological development, Schmit et al. develop the CAITE governance model for ethical AI. Under the CAITE model, AI products and any derivatives based upon them would be bound by a set of ethical terms and conditions. Enforcement of Ethical Use Licenses would be assigned to a central trusted entity, which ideally would be led by a community-designated, nongovernment group of AI developers and users. According to the authors, the CAITE system both incentivizes and enforces ethical AI practices in a way that is flexible and community-driven, which could provide soft law support for traditional government oversight.
As a supplement to the Policy Forum, Schmit asked ChatGPT (an AI chatbot) to provide insights into how ethical AI use should be governed. While the output provided a reasonable summary of important considerations, the AI glossed over the more difficult questions, like how governance should be implemented.
Mice without a brain clock lose the synchronization between the different organs, as shown in the bioluminescence profile (right). In the liver, however, synchronization is maintained. Credit: UNIGE Circadian clocks, which regulate the metabolic functions of all living beings over a period of about 24 hours, are one of the most fundamental biological mechanisms. In humans, their disruption is the cause of many metabolic diseases such as diabetes or serious liver diseases. Although scientists have been studying this mechanism for many years, little is known about how it works. Thanks to an observation tool based on bioluminescence, a research team from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) were able to demonstrate that cells that compose a particular organ can be in-phase, even in the absence of the central brain clock or of any other clocks in the body. Indeed, the scientists managed to restore circadian function in the liver in completely arrhythmic mice, demonstrating that neurons are not unique in their ability to coordinate.
Using new imaging technology, researchers find cellular clocks in a given organ can be synchronized without the intervention of external signals.
Scientists now want to understand how these cells stay in the same phase when they are not receiving any information, either from the brain or from other external signals. Their hypothesis? The existence of a form of coupling, in the form of an exchange of molecules between these different
From birth to age 5, a child’s brain develops more than at any other time in life. And early brain development has a lasting impact on a child’s ability to learn and succeed in school and life. The quality of a child’s experiences in the first few years of life – positive or negative – helps shape how their brain develops.An excellent, open access review on the common mechanisms used to development the framework for both seeing and hearing. It's obviously "heavy on neuroscience," but most readers interested in how the brain is built will learn a lot.
You will learn that the brain is not...repeat, NOT!...a "blank slate," from which individual experience then carves the specialized circuits that make humans a uniquely intelligent creature. Instead, an inherited network of developmental genes ensures that hundreds or perhaps even thousands of specialized neurons are directed to specialized brain regions (e.g., sent to the visual cortex). Because of where they are directed plus their unique properties, these neurons form synapses. That is, they connect with one another to form the circuits (i.e. "wiring diagrams") that give us vision and hearing.
That fundamental, gene-directed circuitry constitutes a framework, which thereafter is modified via two types of plasticity: organizational and activational plasticity. Organizational plasticity ensures massive movement of circuits; connections are broken and new ones made elsewhere. This type of plasticity is experienced by the congenitally blind. For these people, something (many possibilities exist) has gone wrong so that the "genetically intended" framework is replaced by something quite different.
The other type of plasticity, activational plasticity, is also under genetic guidance. Many genes controlling neuronal function in brain regions controlling sensory functions have evolved to "listen" for certain environmental signals (e.g., not enough growth factors, called neurotrophins). If they receive the signal, the fundamental framework is slightly altered. If they receive a different signal (or scarcity of neurotrophins), the framework is slightly altered. All of this happens because of individual experience.
This review studies only vision and hearing, two sensory regions, but the mechanisms are the same for brain regions that give us thinking, planning, and thoughts of the future: the nonsensory neocortex.
The neocortex's circuitry is framed by inherited developmental genes, and those environmental signals that result in plasticity (probably; work is ongoing) work through the brain's specialized immune system (microglia) to carve circuits that give us things like universal grammar, ease of language learning, theory of mind, intuitive supernatural agency, and various instinctive knowledge of physical laws. Those are not learned, but rather are under genetic control in the same manner as the circuits discussed above.
Finally, so many development genes are involved in the above mechanisms it is inevitable that we all differ in our "suite" of such genes (our genotypes vary). In fact, our DNA has "hotspots" that have evolved to mutate more often so that a greater variety of "brain building genes" results. Natural selection requires such variety in order to become more and more "fit" (a specialized, evolutionary term with a specific meaning; don't think "fit" as in suited for the gym). Thus, we all inherit some slight (or, in some cases like schizophrenia and autism, significant) differences in the framework that our individual experiences have to work with. As you can imagine, if the framework is different, then the same signal received by two people will result in a slightly (or greatly) modified post-experience brain circuit. Thus, we all behave differently...in some part...because we inherited different genes.
“Prebiotic chemistry” can be understood to mean various things: chemistry which occurred before life began or the chemistry which led to life on Earth, and possibly on other planets. Workers in the field practically define it as naturally occurring, mainly organic, chemistry in planetary or other solar system environments, which may have contributed to the origin of life on Earth, or elsewhere. The terms “abiotic chemistry” (chemistry which takes place in the absence of biology) and “prebiotic chemistry” are in some senses synonymous. Since it is generally assumed that the universe is not goal directed, and since it is not known what processes led to the origin of life, the study of prebiotic chemistry almost certainly includes both productive and nonproductive chemical processes. This review places this chemistry in a historical and cosmic context and details some of the known reactions thought to be important. However, the interested reader is referred to more technical texts (Miller and Orgel 1974; Cleaves 2008; Cleaves and Lazcano 2009) and references therein. How life on Earth began remains an unexplained scientific problem. This problem is nuanced in its practical details and the way attempted explanations feedback with questions and developments in other areas of science, including astronomy, biology, and planetary science. Prebiotic chemistry attempts to address this issue theoretically, experimentally, and observationally. The ease of formation of bioorganic compounds under plausible prebiotic conditions suggests that these molecules were present in the primitive terrestrial environment. In addition to synthesis in the Earth's primordial atmosphere and oceans, it is likely that the in fill of comets, meteorites, and interplanetary dust particles, as well as submarine hydrothermal vent synthesis, may have contributed to prebiotic organic evolution. The primordial organic soup may have been quite complex, but it did not likely include all of the compounds found in modern organisms. Regardless of their origin, organic compounds would need to be concentrated and complexified by environmental mechanisms. "Scientists from Japan and the U.S. have confirmed the presence in meteorites of a key organic molecule which may have been used to build other organic molecules, including some used by life. The discovery validates theories of the formation of organic compounds in extraterrestrial environments.
The chemistry of life runs on organic compounds, molecules containing carbon and hydrogen, which also may include oxygen, nitrogen and other elements. While commonly associated with life, organic molecules also can be created by non-biological processes and are not necessarily indicators of life. An enduring mystery regarding the origin of life is how biology could have arisen from non-biological chemical processes, called prebiotic chemistry. Organic molecules from meteorites are one of the sources of organic compounds that lead to the formation of life on Earth."
"An international team of researchers has detected a poly heterocyclic organic molecule called hexamethylenetetramine in three carbonaceous meteorites: Murchison, Murray, and Tagish Lake. The presence of this molecule in carbon-rich meteorites promises its pivotal role to carry interstellar prebiotic precursors to the inner Solar System, which should contribute to the chemical evolution in the primordial stage on Earth.
Presence of organic molecules in extraterrestrial environments has been widely accepted thanks to recent successes in the detection of cometary molecules toward comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, as well as long-standing astronomical observations and analyses of carbonaceous meteorites in laboratories.
However, despite extensive studies on the formation of organic molecules in various extraterrestrial environments such as molecular clouds, protosolar nebula and asteroids, it still remains under debate when, where, and how such extraterrestrial molecules were formed."
Thanks
Robert Stonjek,
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-012-0443-9
"Even if humanity stopped emitting greenhouse gases tomorrow, Earth will warm for centuries to come and oceans will rise by metres, according to a controversial modelling study published Thursday.
Natural drivers of global warming—more heat-trapping clouds, thawing permafrost, and shrinking sea ice—already set in motion by carbon pollution will take on their own momentum, researchers from Norway reported in the Nature journal Scientific Reports." Why permafrost releases carbon as it thaws.
O. Roger Anderson, a biologist at the Earth Institute’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, explained
why permafrost releases carbon as it thaws.
The ‘active layer’ of soil on top of the permafrost, which may be two to 13 feet deep, thaws each summer and can sustain plant life. This layer releases carbon from the roots of plants that respire out CO2, and from microbes in the soil. Some microbes break down the organic matter into CO2. Others, called archaea, produce methane instead, when conditions are anaerobic—when the soil is saturated with water or no oxygen is available. Methane is 20 to 30 times more potent than carbon dioxide at exacerbating global warming, but it remains in the atmosphere for less time.
As permafrost thaws, the active layer deepens. The microbes become active and plant roots can penetrate further down, resulting in the production of more CO2. The amount of methane generated depends on how saturated the ground is.
Scientists don’t know the relative proportions of carbon dioxide and methane emissions that might result from largescale thawing permafrost, said Anderson, because this has never happened in human history. However, research on the upper layer of the tundra (treeless plains overlying the permafrost) suggests that the average carbon dioxide emissions are about 50 times higher than those of methane.
“And we know that for every 10 degrees Celsius that the soil warms up, the emission of CO2 will double,” said Anderson.
