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Friday, October 24, 2014

Amazing Slide show of Persian Architecture!

Introduction

Persian art and architecture, works of art and structures produced in the region of Asia traditionally known as Persia and now called Iran. Bounded by fierce mountains and deserts, the high plateau of Iran has seen the flow of many migrations and the development of many cultures, all of which have added distinctive features to the many styles of Persian art and architecture. There are excellent collections of Persian art in Tehran; the Metropolitan Museum; the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; and the Victoria and Albert Museum.


Beauties of Iran ©Mohammad Reza Domiri Ganji sound Track: Autumn sunset by Jason Shaw


CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES in Persian architecture.
Materials
Mud. The most frequent building material in Iranian cultural areas has always been mud, which is available everywhere. When wet, it can simply be plastered on walls without shaping. Alternatively, it can be tempered and formed into large blocks with more or less rectangular sides; the most common dimensions of such blocks, even today, are about 80 x 80 x 60 cm. Mud can also be manufactured into bricks and either dried (ḵešt) in the sun or baked (ājor). Sun-dried mud bricks were generally larger in antiquity and the early Middle Ages than they are today. For example, those used in Urartian (7th and 8th centuries b.c.e.) fortress walls measured about 50 x 50 x 12 cm (Kleiss, 1977), whereas modern mud bricks are approximately 22 x 22 x 5-6 cm. Plano-convex bricks, which are shaped like cushions or bread loaves, with one flat and one convex face, first appeared in Persia in the 8th-7th millennia b.c.e. in the walls of the Neolithic settlement at Tepe Ganj Dareh (Ganj Darrah Tappa) in Kurdistan (Smith), where they were set in mud mortar. Sun-dried mud bricks, usually quadratic in form, predominated until the end of the Achaemenid period. In the 2nd millennium b.c.e. painted and glazed bricks were also used in Elam. Under the Parthians (3rd century b.c.e.-3rd century c.e.) and especially the Sasanians (3rd-7th centuries c.e.) large baked bricks set in mortar became more and more common in Persia. In about the 10th century molded, cut, and relief-carved bricks, often painted or glazed as well, became a significant feature of Persian architectural decoration.
Rubble. In prehistoric and early historic times rubble, naturally fragmented or deliberately chipped rock of no specific shape, was the most frequent building material after mud; it was used primarily in foundation walls, on top of which the main walls were constructed of mud (packed [čīna], chunks, or bricks). The rubble walls consisted mainly of flat pieces of stone, which were carefully laid with loose pebbles filling the interstices; the whole was cemented with mud mortar. In historical times lime mortar has also been used.
Cut stone. Cut-stone architecture appeared in Persia in the Urartian period, around the beginning of the 1st millennium b.c.e. Sometimes mighty stone boulders weighing several tons were broken up into smaller pieces and used in construction. For example, in the terrace at Persepolis such man-made boulders were laid in courses with small, crudely hewn stones filling the gaps. Whether or not these wall surfaces, which were frequently marred by convex humps and roughhewn edges or with protective rims projecting along the edges, were meant to be evened and smoothed often cannot be determined. Stone architectural members—like column bases, shafts, and capitals; door sills, frames, and jambs; wall niches; cornices; crenellations; and other special forms—were crudely worked with iron tools as early as the Achaemenid period, probably under the technical influence of Greek stonemasons.
Wood. Another building material was wood, from both coniferous and deciduous trees, especially poplar; it is still important today for supports and roof construction in the traditional rural architecture of Persia. Roofs and ceilings are constructed of logs, across which smaller wooden boards are laid and on top of them reed mats or thatch; the whole is then covered with mud, which has first been levigated and tempered with straw, for “insulation.” Along the Caspian Sea coast wooden architecture predominates, particularly post-and-lintel houses with thatched roofs. In the Sasanian period wood also played a role in construction of bridges; it must be assumed that the large number of bridges known from this period consisted of horizontal wooden structures resting on top of stone piers. On the other hand, in the Islamic period bridges were built primarily of stone or brick and vaulted; wood played only a subordinate role in such constructions, being used for scaffolding, building forms, pulley weights, temporary supports, and often for reinforcement in the vaulting.
Gravel and paving. In ancient, medieval, and modern times road embankments have been constructed of gravel, either coarse or fine, and paved with relatively unworked stone blocks. In Islamic cities brick was sometimes used to pave major streets (Kiani, pp. 230ff.).
Techniques
Preparing the site. Already in ancient Persia, as in Hittite Anatolia in the 2nd millennium b.c.e., the technique of making use of the rock surface of a site as foundations for walls was known. In the 8th and 7th centuries b.c.e. the Urartians developed this technique to the highest level of perfection (Kleiss, 1976, pp. 28 ff.). Flat terraces of different sizes and elevations were carved out of the uneven rock surface following the specific conformation of the site, thus preparing a series of level platforms of the required dimensions, on each of which walls could be erected. Those parts of the rock on which there was to be no construction were generally left unworked. The Achaemenids also made extensive use of this technique at Persepolis and other sites. They had probably learned it from the Armenians, who had received it as part of their cultural heritage from the Urartians. Whereas in Urartu, however, rubble or ashlar walls rested on terraces hacked out of living rock or on leveled rock surfaces, in the Achaemenid period such rock-cut terraces served as foundations for walls of mud brick (Kleiss, 1971).
In preparing the site, for example, that of an Urartian temple, recesses for plaques containing foundation inscriptions were frequently cut into the rock at the points where the corners of the walls were to rest (Kleiss, 1963-64). Drainage channels were also hollowed out of the rock surface at several points before the walls were constructed; after the walls were built their function was to drain off groundwater that collected inside the walls and thus to keep them dry (Kleiss, 1976, pp. 28-29). In the Urartian and the ensuing Median periods staircase passages were also cut through the living rock, in order to ensure the provision of water during a siege; whenever possible natural crevices in the stone platforms were exploited for this purpose. Normally such a staircase led from within a fortress to an underground well or spring (Kleiss, 1979, p. 154). All these early features were achieved by carving out the living rock with picks.
When the surface of the site was somewhat concave, rubble foundations, mostly for mud-brick walls, were generally preferred. Larger pieces of broken stone were carefully laid in courses with smaller stones filling the interstices; toward the top pebbles of diminishing size were used, in order to produce a level surface. In antiquity mud mortar was used, in the Middle Ages lime mortar. Over the top of the foundation there was a layer of white lime 1-2 cm thick, on which the lowest course of the mud-brick wall rested. This layer of lime was obviously intended as a damp course, to prevent ground moisture from rising through the unmortared dry wall of the foundation into the mud-brick walls and causing them to collapse. In Urartian architecture rubble foundations were constructed as stepped terraces, in order to save stone; the dimensions of the topmost surface were determined by the width of the mud-brick wall to be erected on it (Kleiss, 1977, pp. 35-36).
Walls. The upper walls were normally coated with plaster. In ancient times mud-brick walls were usually plastered with mud tempered with chaff. Lime plaster, known from as early as the Neolithic, became common in the Urartian and Achaemenid periods. Evenly spaced projections from the walls served the primarily aesthetic purpose of articulating the facade, but in rare instances they also served to buttress the construction or even as part of the fortifications.
Vaults. Vaulting became common in Persia in the 2nd millennium b.c.e.; in fact genuine vaults of baked brick with gypsum mortar had already been introduced, for example, at the Elamite site of Haft Tepe (Negahban). Semicircular vault forms are depicted in Urartian architectural representations, and they are also known from bridge constructions of the Sasanian period, for example, the so-called “bridge of Valerian” at Šūštar, which is considered to have been built by Roman engineers after 260 c.e. Parabolic vault forms began to appear in Sasanian architecture. From early in the Islamic period the pointed arch was also in use in stone and mud-brick construction, as well as in buildings of baked brick. The original tall, pointed profile of this type of arch became progressively wider and shallower until the 17-18th centuries, especially in bridge construction. In the 19th century the European round arch gained increasing influence; by the end of the century it had, however, given way to the basket-shaped arch with its much wider span, again especially in bridge construction. A particular feature of Islamic architecture from the 11th century wasmoqarnas (oversailing courses of small niche sections) vaulting, which became increasingly common with the passage of time. Such vaults could be constructed of stone or bricks but were more often simply decorative shells carved from gypsum or limestone mortar (Harb). They were particularly popular as interior architectural decoration but also sometimes appeared on building exteriors, especially facades.
Quarrying. Whenever possible quarrying was carried out where stratified stone was bedded horizontally and would fracture in sheets. Blocks could then be cut from the sheets with chisels or crowbars at no great expense, rendering deep shafts and the use of wedges unnecessary (Kleiss, 1981, pp. 197-98). In Achaemenid quarries wedge-shaped holes averaging about 20 cm long, 8 cm wide, and 8-10 cm deep can be observed at wide intervals. In the quarry south of the terrace at Persepolis rough passages or channels had been cut around the blocks; wooden wedges had then been driven into the rock at the back, in order to split off the stone blocks in parallel layers. A road paved with stone chips linked the quarry face to the workings along the upper facade and an adjacent terrace (Kleiss, 1975, pp. 81 ff.). In the Sasanian period, too, straight channels 30-50 cm deep were cut into the rock and wedge-shaped holes closely spaced along them. This technique was lost until recent times and was only reintroduced in connection with modern construction methods.
Clamps. From the Achaemenid period onward metal clamps, mostly of iron, were used in ashlar construction. Some were simple bands, but clamps in the form of swallowtails were more frequent (Schmidt, I, pp. 61-63; Kleiss and Calmeyer). In the Sasanian period band-shaped iron clamps were used most often, for example, on the facing walls of bridge piers. The clamps were cast in lead molds.
Earthen dams. One specifically Persian feature is found in bridge building: earthen dams with paved surfaces. Although they have also occasionally occurred in other cultures, they are particularly frequent in Persia. These dams were as a rule intended to provide protection from the periodic extreme variations in water levels in the streams, which might undermine bridge piers. They were also useful in diverting streams into subsidiary canals for irrigation purposes.
Mortaring. Either lime or gypsum mortar was used, depending on the required degree of durability and the necessity for special protection, as in bridge piers or canal walls, which were subject to the continuous action of water. Important differences can be observed in the consistency of the mortar used in the piers and in the vaulted portions of the bridge. In order to articulate the otherwise monotonous wall surface, in early Islamic architecture mortar-filled vertical joints were made thicker than the horizontal joints and decorated with stamped or incised designs.
Stonemasons’ marks. Stonemasons’ marks are known in Persian architecture from the Achaemenid period, owing to Greek influence (Stronach, pp. 21-22); before that time they were not known in Persia. They were used in work on large buildings, in order to document the performance of the individual stonemasons and to serve as an aid in reckoning payment. A few basic forms, like the circle, the cross, the triangle, the rectangle, and the open rectangle, recurred in all periods, from the time of the Achaemenids until the reign of the Qajar dynasty (1193-1341/1779-1924); it is therefore clear that the equal-armed cross had nothing to do with identifying Christian workmen. In comparing the repertoire of stonemasons’ marks at different Achaemenid building sites, there are no immediately apparent differences that can be taken as evidence for identifying different workshops or different historical periods (Kleiss, 1980). The same is true of stonemasons’ marks in Sasanian and early Islamic architecture, as well as in the buildings of the period from the Safavids through the Qajars.
Achieving color effects. In Achaemenid architecture color effects were achieved mainly through the use of stones of different hues, for example, in column bases. This technique was already known in the Urartian period and was passed on to the Armenians, who have continued to make use of it until modern times; it was probably through them that it came to be adopted for medieval Saljuq architecture. Traces of color remaining on some Achaemenid architectural elements suggest that certain parts of buildings were at least partially painted. Red marks were also used as an aid in joining together different building elements in the Achaemenid palaces at Pasargadae and as guidelines for squaring and smoothing the building blocks.
Tools. The oldest stone-working tool so far known from Persia is an iron chisel found in the Urartian fortress at Besṭām, dating from the 7th century b.c.e. It was built into the upper leveling courses of the stone foundations of the wall and surrounded on all sides by mud; it is thus to be associated with the original dedication of the building. It is 19.8 cm long and 5.7 cm wide and would have lent itself to the cutting away of the stepped terraces of the rocky subfoundation, as well as to secondary working of building stone. It has a chisel-shaped point (Kleiss, 1979a, I, pp. 84-85). Under Darius I a toothed chisel was employed only occasionally, but it did not come into general use until somewhat later, when it was introduced by Greek stonemasons (Nylander, pp. 53-56; Stronach, pp. 99-100). In stone architecture flat chisels were used to cut deep, narrow channels around projecting blocks; traces of this work are still clearly visible. They were also used in the subsequent crude shaping of the blocks. The final smoothing of the stone surface must have been accomplished by means of abrasion with harder stones in conjunction with water and fine sand.
Transport. The question of how doorjambs, column shafts, and capitals were transported from the Achaemenid period onward can be answered only by assuming that level tracks were prepared. The partly worked stone blocks, like those in the terrace at Persepolis, were brought on wheels drawn by work animals over inclined tracks leading to the construction area.
Laying out the plan. Measuring apparatus must also have been used in laying out building sites, but no ancient examples of such apparatus are known. The precise planning and execution of buildings, already apparent in the Urartian period but even more highly developed under the Achaemenids, would nevertheless have necessitated such instruments. A proposed building, whether a single structure or a larger complex, like the Urartian fortress at Besṭām and the structures at Pasargadae and Persepolis, was marked out precisely on the site, as can be recognized from the rock cutting at Besṭām and in the Kūh-e Raḥmat at Persepolis. Only those parts of the rock on which a specific part of the building, for example, a buttress, a support, or a jog in the course of the wall was planned, were cut away; it was done so precisely that, even where the walls have completely disappeared, the outline of the plan can be clearly gauged by the limits of the rock cutting.
Bibliography:
D. H. Gye, “Arches and Domes in Iranian Islamic Buildings: An Engineer’s Perspective,” Iran 26, 1988, pp. 129-44.
U. Harb, “Ilkhanidische Stalaktitengewölbe,” AMI, Ergänzungsband 4, Berlin, 1978, pp. 24-66.
M. Y. Kiani, The City of Jurjan. A General Study on Urbanization and Urban Planning in Iran, Tehran, 1986.
W. Kleiss, “Zur Rekonstruktion des urartäischen Tempels,” Istanbuler Mitteilungen13-14, 1963-64, pp. 1-74.
Idem, “Die Felsabtreppungen von Persepolis,” MDOG 103, 1971, pp. 69-76.
Idem, Urartu. Ein wiederentdeckter Rivale Assyriens, Munich, 1976.
Idem, Bastam/Rusa-i Uru.Tur, Führer zu archäologischen Plätzen in Iran 1, Berlin, 1977.
Idem, Bastam, 2 vols., Berlin, 1979a-88.
Idem, “Zum Stand der Urartu-Forschung in Iran,” Archäologische Anz., 1979b, pp. 145-57.
Idem, “Steinmetzzeichen an iranischen Bauten,” AMI 13, 1980, pp. 113-17.
Idem, “Steinbrüche bei Shushtar,” AMI 14, 1981, pp. 197-98.
Idem and P. Calmeyer, “Das unvollendete achaimenidische Felsgrab bei Persepolis,”AMI 8, 1975, pp. 81-98.
E. O. Negahban, “Haft Tepe,” Iran 7, 1969, pp. 173-77.
C. Nylander, Ionians in Pasargadae. Studies in Old Persian Architecture, Uppsala, 1970. E. Schmidt, Persepolis I, Chicago, 1953.
P. E. L. Smith, “Ganj Dareh Tepe,” Iran 10, 1972, pp. 165-68.
D. Stronach, Pasargadae, Oxford, 1978.
A. B. Tilia, Studies and Restorations at Persepolis and Other Sites of Fars, Rome, 1972.
(Wolfram Kleiss)
Originally Published: December 15, 1992
Last Updated: October 28, 2011
thanks
http://www.iranicaonline.org/

The Eighteen Most Corrupt Countries In The World



Read more: http://www.businessinsider.com/

Four Things Everyone Gets Wrong About Leadership Inc. LOLLY DASKAL, INC.

1. The myth of entrepreneurial leadership

It's easy to assume that all entrepreneurs are leaders, but just because someone has a great and timely idea and can organize and operate a business, the truth is they aren't necessarily a leader. Even if you're a world-class winner as an entrepreneur, you may find it hard to get people to see you as a leader within your organization. (This is a huge factor in the failure of so many start-ups.)
You may need to work on your communication skills or expand your focus to include motivating the people on your team and helping them develop their own skills.

2. The myth of management as leadership

Another widespread myth is that leadership is equated with management. They're actually two widely different (if interrelated) pursuits.
If you're a manager, you're focused on maintaining systems, processes, and best practices. But if you're a leader, you'll find that much of your time is spent working to influence people. They're both important roles, but honestly they're not the same thing.

3. The myth of trailblazer as leadership

Just because you're standing in front of the crowd, you're not necessarily the leader.
In fact, it may be a bad sign.
The best leaders take their place alongside their people, helping propel them forward to a shared mission and vision. They may even be behind them, watching their backs. There's not a lot of apparent ego in the mix.

4. The myth of position as leadership

The No. 1 top myth about leadership is the idea that leadership resides in certain positions: If you're a at the top, you're a leader. If at the bottom, there's no room for leadership.
In reality, the truth is, leadership has absolutely nothing to do with position, and you don't have to look very far to find examples of leadership (good and bad) at every level. The warehouse worker organizing a holiday charity drive for her fellow employees? That's a leader. The CEO who pockets a bonus, then heads off for a vacation so she's not around when the salary freeze is announced? Not so much.
So the next time you see something typically labeled leadership, slow down and take a closer look.
  1. True leadership is about influence, nothing more and nothing less.
  2. True leadership cannot be awarded, appointed or assigned.
  3. True leadership can never be mandated, only earned.
And the best proof is not the leader's personal success but the success of those who follow.


Read more: http://www.inc.com/

உலகம் எங்கும் வாழ்ந்தாலும் தமிழன் எண்ணம் தாய் நாட்டில்.....


"The Science Of Successful Learning."


"We need to keep learning and remembering all our lives," they write. "Getting ahead at work takes mastery of job skills and difficult colleagues ... If you're good at learning, you have an advantage in life." 
And to learn something is to be able to remember it, say the authors, two of whom are psychology professors at Washington University in St. Louis.
Unfortunately, lots of the techniques for learning that we pick up in school don't help with long-term recall — like cramming or highlighting. 
To get over these bad habits, we scoured "Make It Stick" for learning tips. 
But be warned: If it's difficult, it's good thing. 
"Learning is deeper and more durable when it's effortful," the authors write. "Learning that's easy is like writing in sand, here today and gone tomorrow." 
Here are the takeaways: 

Retrieval: Bring it back from memory.

When you're attempting to recall an idea, method, or technique from memory, you're retrieving. Flash cards are a great example: They force you to recall an idea from memory, unlike a technique like highlighting where you're not burning anything into your brain. The reason retrieval's so effective is that it strengthens the neural pathways associated with a given concept. 

Elaboration: Connect new ideas to what you already know.

When you try to put a new idea into your own words, you're elaborating. 
"The more you can explain about the way your new learning relates to prior knowledge," the authors write, "the stronger your grasp of the new learning will be, and the more connections you create that will help you remember it later." 
For instance, if you're in physics class and trying to understand heat transfer, try to tie the concept into your real-life experiences, say, by imagining how a warm cup of coffee disperses heat into your hands. 

Interleaving: Varying your subjects.

When you work on a variety of things at once, you're interleavingIf you're trying to understand a subject — from the basics of economics to hitting a pitch — you're going to learn better if you mix up your examples. A sports case: Batters who do batting practice with a mix of fastballs, change-ups, and curveballs hit for a higher average. The interleaving helps because when you're out there in the wild, you need to first discern what kind of problem you're facing before you can start to find a solution, like a ball coming from a pitcher's hand.

Generation: Answer before you have an answer.

When you try to give an answer before it's given to you, you're generating. "By wading into the unknown first and puzzling through it, you are far more likely to learn and remember the solution than if somebody first sat down to teach it to you," the authors write. In an academic setting, you could work finding your own answers before class starts. In a professional setting, you could supply your own ideas when you're stuck before talking with your boss. 

Reflection: Evaluate what happened.

When you take a few moments to review what happened with a project or meeting, you're reflecting. You might ask yourself a few questions: What went well? Where can you improve? What does it remind you of? Harvard Business School researchers have found reflective writing to be super powerful. Just 15 minutes of written reflection at the end of the day increased performance by 23% for one group of employees. 

Mnemonics: Use hacks to recall. 

When you're using an acronym or image to recall something, you're using a mnemonic. The hall of fame includes abbreviations — Roy G. Biv for the colors of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet) — and rhyming, like "in 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue."
"Mnemonics are not tools for learning per se," the authors write, "but for creating mental structures that make it easier to retrieve what you have learned."

Calibration: Know what you don't know.

When you get feedback that reveals your ignorance to you, you're calibrating. "Calibration is simply the act of using an objective instrument to clear away illusions and adjust your judgment to better reflect reality." This is necessary since we all suffer from "cognitive illusions": We think we understand something when we really don't. So taking a quiz — or gathering feedback from a colleague — helps you to identify those blind spots.
For a deeper dig into the science of learning, make sure to pick up "Make It Stick." It's an illuminating read.


Read more: http://www.businessinsider.com

Thursday, October 23, 2014

Ceylon building in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition
















NAGA ~ THE SNAKE WORSHIPPERS WERE REVERED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD !!!






In Genesis the Serpent is a Naga who instructs the new infant (humanity) in what is called the Knowledge of Good and Evil. The Christian church has, unfortunately transformed the Initiate-Teacher into a tempting and negative demon-character.
The snake or serpent was worshiped as a representation of the great god,lord Sun, along with fire. The spiritually advanced and realised people whose KUNDALINI was awakened were called "NAGAS" and this was spread throughout world and so we find shnake worship all places in the world even where there are no snakes like IRELAND & TIBET.

Many examples of Nagas appear on the walls and along an avenue leading to the temple of Ankhor Wat in Kampuchea (formerly, Cambodia) and also in Buddhist temples in Shri Lanka (formerly, Ceylon.)

1. In the Mahabharata the Naga Kingdom is the territory of a hardy and warlike tribe called Nagas. They were also considered as one of the supernatural races like the Kinnaras.

2. GREECE :Apolloniy Tiansky - contemporary of Jesus Christ, the main representative of new Pythagorean school - had been trained magics by Nagas of Kashmir.

4. MEXICO: In Mexico, we find the "Naga" which becomes "Nagal."

5. CHINA: In China, the Naga is given the form of the Dragon and has a direct association with the Emperor and is known as the "Son of Heaven". The Chinese are even said to have originated with the Serpent demi-gods and even to speak their language, Naga-Krita.

6. EGYPT: In Egypt the same association is termed "King-Initiate".

7. TIBET: For a place that has no serpents, Tibet, they are still known in a symbolic sense and are called Lu. Nagarjuna called in Tibetan, Lu-trub.

8. GREECE: In the Western traditions we find the same ubiquity for the Naga, or Serpent. One simple example is the Ancient Greek Goddess, Athena. She is known as a warrior Goddess as well as the Goddess of Wisdom; her symbol being the Serpent as displayed on her personal shield.

9. IRELAND : The serpents was worshipped and deified in IRELAND .

10. AFRICA : Africa the chief centre of serpent worship was Dahomey, the cult of the python seems to have been of exotic origin.

11. IRAQ: Ancient Mesopotamians and Semites believed that snakes were immortal

12. ISRAEL: Before the arrival of the Israelites, snake cults were well established in Canaan in the Bronze Age, for archaeologists have uncovered serpent cult objects in Bronze Age strata at several pre-Israelite cities in Canaan: two at Megiddo,one at Gezer, one in the sanctum sanctorum of the Area H temple at Hazor, and two at Shechem.

13. SYRIA : A late Bronze Age Hittite shrine in northern Syria contained a bronze statue of a god holding a serpent in one hand and a staff in the other.

14. MESOPOTAMIA[ TODAY'S IRAQ] : In sixth-century Babylon a pair of bronzer serpents flanked each of the four doorways of the temple of Esagila.

15. MESOPOTAMIA[ TODAY'S IRAQ] : At the tell of Tepe Gawra, at least seventeen Early Bronze Age Assyrian bronze serpents were recovered.

16. EGYPT: Ancient Egyptians worshiped snakes, especially the cobra. The cobra was not only associated with Ra, but also many other deities such as Wadjet, Renenutet, and Meretseger. Serpents could also be evil and harmful such as the case of Aapep.

17. GREECE : we learn from Herodotus of the great serpent which defended the citadel of Athens. The Roman genius loci took the form of a serpent. A snake was kept and fed with milk during rites dedicated to Potrimpus, a Prussian god.The oracles of the Ancient Greeks were said to have been the continuation of the tradition begun with the worship of the Egyptian cobra goddess, Wadjet.

18. On the Iberian Peninsula there is evidence that before the introduction of Christianity, and perhaps more strongly before invasions of the Romans, Serpent worship was part of local religion.

19. AUSTRALIA : In Australia, the Aboriginal people worship a huge python, known by a variety of names but universally referred to as the Rainbow Serpent, that was said to have created the landscape, embodied the spirit of fresh water and punished lawbreakers. The Aborigines in southwest Australia called the serpent the Waugyl, while the Warramunga of the east coast worshipped the mythical Wollunqua.

20. CAMBODIA: An Indian brahmana named Kaundinya came to Cambodia, which at the time was under the dominion of the naga king. The naga princess Soma sallied forth to fight against the invader but was defeated. Presented with the option of marrying the victorious Kaundinya, Soma readily agreed to do so, and together they ruled the land. The Khmer people are their descendants.

21. KOREA: In Korean mythology, Eobshin, the wealth goddess, appears as an eared, black snake. In Jeju Island, the goddess Chilseong and her seven daughters are all snakes.

22. AMERICA : In America some of the Native American tribes give reverence to the rattlesnake as grandfather and king of snakes who is able to give fair winds or cause tempest. Among the Hopi of Arizona the serpent figures largely in one of the dances.

23. AMERICA : The rattlesnake was worshipped in the Natchez temple of the sun and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl was a feathered serpent-god.

24. PERU: The tribes of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the pre-Inca days and in Chile the Mapuche made a serpent figure in their deluge beliefs.

25. COLOMBIA : Lake Guatavita in Colombia also maintains a Cacique legend of a "Serpent God" living in the waters, which the tribe worshiped by placing gold and silver jewelry into the lake.

26. Norse : Jörmungandr, alternately the Midgard Serpent or World Serpent, of the Norse mythology, is the middle child of Loki and the giantess Angrboða.

27. Carvings about 70,000 years old on a snake-like rock in a cave in Botswana indicate that Stone Age people developed religious rituals far earlier than previously believed


 Kundalini (कुंडलिनी, IAST: kuṃḍalinī is a Sanskrit word meaning either "coiled up" or "coiling like a snake." There are a number of other translations of the term usually emphasizing a more serpentine nature to the word— e.g. 'serpent power'. It has been suggested that the caduceus symbol of coiling snakes is an ancient symbolic representation of Kundalini physiology, despite widespread agreement that the symbol originated with Hermes and Greek mythology.

The concept of Kundalini comes from yogic philosophy of ancient India and refers to the mothering intelligence behind yogic awakening and spiritual maturation,where it is also known as Kundalini Shakti. It might be regarded by yogis as a sort of deity, hence the occasional capitalization of the term. Within a western frame of understanding it is often associated with the practice of contemplative or religious practices that might induce an altered state of consciousness, either brought about spontaneously or through yoga, psychedelic drugs, or a near-death experience.

According to the yogic tradition, Kundalini is curled up in the back part of the root chakra in three and one-half turns around the sacrum. Yogic phenomenology states that kundalini awakening is associated with the appearance of bio-energetic phenomena that are said to be experienced somatically by the yogi. This appearance is also referred to as "pranic awakening". Prana is interpreted as the vital, life-sustaining force in the body. Uplifted, or intensified life-energy is called pranotthana and is supposed to originate from an apparent reservoir of subtle bio-energy at the base of the spine. This energy is also interpreted as a vibrational phenomena that initiates a period, or a process of vibrational spiritual development.

The word "NAGA" was used as base for people who were spiritually awakened. Naga, ( Sanskrit: “serpent”) in Hinduism and Buddhism, a member of a class of semidivine beings, half human and half serpentine. They are considered to be a strong, handsome race who can assume either human or wholly serpentine form.

Three notable nagas are Shesha (or Ananta), who in the Hindu myth of creation is said to support Narayana (Vishnu) as he lies on the cosmic ocean and on whom the created world rests; Vasuki, who was used as a churning rope to churn the cosmic ocean of milk; and Takshaka, the tribal chief of the snakes.

Ceylon Aviation History





ENHANCING COGNITIVE FUNCTION with PREGNENOLONE:


Pregnenolone is the first hormone in the pathway that generates a host of key neurohormones in the brain that are known to affect nerve cell growth and to modulate various moods.
The conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone constitutes the first of many steps in the synthesis of some of the body’s key hormones, including dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), testosterone, progesterone, estrogen, and cortisol.
Nicknamed “the mother hormone,” pregnenolone is a vital building block, being the very first (and arguably the most versatile) hormone in a cascade of molecular events.
Like newly cut lumber, which can be processed into everything from building materials to facial tissue, pregnenolone’s final products fill myriad essential roles in the body, from stimulating memory via excitatory pathways to easing anxiety through inhibitory mechanisms.
Pregnenolone therefore has a dominant effect in a wide range of nervous system functions.
Despite the apparent complexity of brain cells, or neurons, we can simplify matters considerably by thinking about their activities as either being stimulated or suppressed. Not surprisingly, most memory formation occurs as the result of stimulation of nerve cells. Stimulation generally results in the production of nerve branches known as dendrites, which connect to additional neurons, making the entire “switchboard” larger and more complex.
These structures are formed by activating special “switches” in the brain. While there are a variety of such excitatory switches, the category called NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) channels (or receptors) comprises the most important group. These channels must be activated for learning and memory to occur.
Now, here’s where it gets interesting! The typical excitatory brain chemical that activates those memory-enhancing NMDA receptors is the amino acid glutamate, which is present throughout the brain. And while glutamate is critical for normal learning, too much excitation by glutamate over time can damage neurons—in fact, overstimulation, or excitotoxicity, by glutamate is thought to be one of the underlying factors in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease.
What makes pregnenolone so important in this context is that it seems to trigger the NMDA channels through a mechanism that is independent of glutamatewhich in turn may account for the observed neuroprotective effects of pregnenolone on brain cells
The bottom line of all this intricate science is that pregnenolone may play a pivotal role both in laying down memories in the first place, and then preventing their loss by directly protecting the nerve networks that store them! These complementary and versatile actions of pregnenolone are sending shock waves of interest through the scientific community because of the enormous implications for treating all sorts of age-related disorders of memory
This is borne out in research that has demonstrated pregnenolone’s ability to reduce the risk of dementia and improve memory, while also alleviating anxiety and fighting depression.

விந்தையான பெண் ‘Phenomenal Woman'


கவிதை: மாயா ஏஞ்சலோ
தமிழ் ஆக்கம்: கால சுப்ரமணியன்
Kaala Subramaniam
எனது ரகசியம் எதிலுள்ளது என்று
அழகிய பெண்கள் வியந்துநிற்பார்கள்
ஒரு ஃபேஷன் மாடலுக்கு ஏற்ற கவர்ச்சியோ
அல்லது கட்டழகோ கொண்டவள் நான் அல்ல
ஆனால் நான் இதைச்
சொல்லத் தொடங்கும்போதே ,
நான் பொய் சொல்கிறேன் என்று
அவர்கள் நினைப்பார்கள்.
அது, என் கைகளின் நீட்சி அசைவில்
என் இடையின் அகற்சியில்,
என் நடையின் துள்ளலில் ,
என் இதழின் சுழிப்பில்
இருப்பதாக நான் சொல்வேன்.
அதிசயிக்கத்தக்க விதத்தில்
நான் ஒரு பெண்,
விந்தையான பெண்
இதுவே நான்.
உங்கள் விருப்பத்துக்கு ஏற்ப
சாவதானமான
நான் ஒரு அறைக்குள் நுழைகிறேன்,
ஒரு ஆணிடம் செல்கிறேன்,
அந்த ஆட்கள் எழுந்துநிற்கிறார்கள் அல்லது
மண்டியிட்டுத் தாழ்ந்து பணிகிறார்கள்.
பின்பு அவர்கள் என்னைச் சுற்றிலும்,
தேனீ அடை போல மொய்க்கிறார்கள்.
அது, என் விழிகளின் ஜுவாலையில்,
என் பல்வரிசையின் மின்னலில்,
என் இடையின் நெளிப்பில்,
என் கால்களின் நடனத்தில்
இருப்பதாக நான் சொல்வேன்.
அதிசயிக்கத்தக்கவிதத்தில்
நான் ஒரு பெண்.
விந்தையான பெண்
இதுவே நான்.
என்னில் தாம் எதைக் கண்டனர் என்று
தங்களுக்குள் வியந்தனர் ஆண்கள்.
அவர்கள் மிகவும் முயன்றும்
எனது உள்முக ரகசியத்தை
அவர்களால் தொட முடியாமலே போனது.
நான் அதை அவர்களுக்குக்
காண்பிக்க முயன்றபோது
அவர்கள் இன்னும் அதை
காணமுடியவில்லை என்றனர்.
அது, என் பின்அழகின் வளைவில்,
என் புன்னகையின் கதிரொளியில்,
எனது நகில்களின் குதிப்பில்,
என் தனிப்பாங்கின் அருட்சியில்
இருப்பதாக நான் சொல்வேன்.
அதிசயிக்கத்தக்கவிதத்தில்
நான் ஒரு பெண்.
விந்தையான பெண்
இதுவே நான்.
இப்போது நீங்கள் புரிந்துகொள்வீர்கள்
ஏன் என் தலை என்றும் குனிவதில்லை என்று.
நான் கத்துவதில்லை
அல்லது எதற்கும் திடுக்கிடுவதில்லை
அல்லது உண்மையில்
உரத்துப் பேசவும் செய்வதில்லை.
நான் உங்களைக் கடந்து செல்வதைப் பார்க்கையில்
அது உங்களைப் பெருமைப்பட வைக்கும்.
அது, என் குதிகளின் கிளிக்கிடலில்,
எனது துவலும் கூந்தலில்
எனது கரத்தின் அங்கையில் ,
என் அக்கறையான ஒப்பனைகளில்
இருப்பதாக நான் சொல்வேன்.
ஏனெனில், நான் ஒரு பெண்.
விந்தையான பெண்
இதுவே நான்.
(‘Phenomenal Woman’.Cosmopolitan magazine.1978).

Cigarette ash can cheaply and easily remove more than 96 percent of poisonous arsenic from water

Scientists have found that discarded cigarette ash can cheaply and easily remove more than 96 per cent of poisonous arsenic from water.


As a result of mining and other industries, the toxin arsenic has contaminated groundwater at high levels in countries such as China, Chile, Hungary and Mexico. The poison is odourless and tasteless so it’s hard to detect, but it can cause skin discolouration, stomach pain, partial paralysis and a range of other serious health problems.
Technology already exists to help eliminate arsenic from water, but it’s expensive and requires a high level of expertise, which makes it impractical for use in rural and developing regions.
Scientists have already started trying to use natural waste materials, such as banana peels, to clean up arsenic, but so far most projects have proved ineffective.
A team of researchers, led by Jiaxing Li from the North China Electrical Power University in Beijing, decided to investigate whether porous cigarette ash might do a better job.
The scientists coated cigarette ash in aluminium oxide, a simple, one-step method, and then tested it on contaminated groundwater. They found the material removed more than 96 per cent of the arsenic, reducing it to a safe level according to the World Health Organisation standards.
Because cigarette ash is already being thrown away worldwide each day, this is a highly cost-effective solution to the public health issue. The scientists reported in the American Chemical Society’s Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research journal, where they published their results.
So now scientists could clean up cigarette butts and arsenic in developing countries at the same time, which is pretty awesome.
Source: EurekAlert

சித்தர்கள் கண்டறிந்த நோய்கள் 4448.

சித்தர்கள் கண்டறிந்த நோய்கள் 4448. அவை, உடல் முழுவதும் தோன்றுவதாகும். உடலிலுள்ள உறுப்புகள் சிலவற்றில் இந்த நோய்கள் உண்டாகுமென்றும், நோய் உண்டாகும் உறுப்புகளாகப் பத்தொன்பதைக் கூறி, அவை ஒவ்வொன்றிலும் தோன்றக் கூடிய நோய்களின் எண்ணிக்கை பிரித்துக் கூறப்படுகிறது.

1. தலை 307

2. வாய் 18

3. மூக்கு 27

4. காது 56

5. கண் 96

6. பிடரி 10

7. கன்னம் 32

8. கண்டம் 6

9. உந்தி 108

10. கைகடம் 130

11. குதம் 101

12. தொடை 91

13. முழங்கால் கெண்டை 47

14. இடை 105

15. இதயம் 106

16. முதுகு 52

17. உள்ளங்கால் 31

18. புறங்கால் 25

19. உடல்உறுப்பு எங்கும் 3100


ஆக 4448 என்பனவாகும். இவ்வாறு உறுப்புகள் தோறும் உண்டாகும் நோயின் எண்ணிக்கையைப் பிரித்துத் தொகைப்படுத்திக் கூறியிருப்பது, சித்த மருத்துவத்தின் தொன்மை, வளர்ச்சி ஆகிய இரண்டையும் காட்டுவதாகக் கொள்ளலாம்.

உலக மருத்துவம், இவ்வாறு நோய்களைத் தொகையாக்கிக் கூறுவது இல்லை என்பது கருதுதற்குரியது.

கிருமிகளினால் உண்டாகும் நோய்கள்

குடலில் உருவாகும் பூச்சிகள் நோய்களை உண்டாக்கும் கிருமிகள் என்று குறிப்பிடப் படுகின்றன. அவை, குடலில் உண்டாகும் நோய்களின் மூலமாகவும், கெட்ட உணவுகளின் மூலமாகவும் உண்டாகும். அவை, பூ நாகம், தட்டைப்புழு, கொக்கிப்புழு, சன்னப்புழு, வெள்ளைப் புழு, செம்பைப் புழு, கீரைப்புழு, கர்ப்பப் புழு, திமிர்ப்பூச்சி எனப் பலவாகும். இவை துர்நாற்றமடைந்த மலத்தினாலும், சிறுநீர், இரத்தம், விந்து, சீழ், சளி, வியர்வை ஆகியவற்றிலும் உற்பத்தியாகும்.

கிருமிகளால் உண்டாகும் நோய்க்குறி குணங்கள்

குடலில் உண்டாகும் கிருமிகளினால் உடல் நிலை பாதிக்கப்பட்டு, அதன் விளைவாக நோய்க்குரிய குணங்கள் புறத்தே தோன்றுமாறு குணங்களை ஏற்படுத்தும். அவை, உடல் நிறம் மாறும். சுரம், வயிற்றுவலி, மார்பு நோய், வெளுப்பு நோய், ஊதல் நோய், இருமல், வாந்தி, சயநோய், அருசி, அசீரணம், பேதி, வாய் நீரூறல், பிரேமை, சூலை, தொப்புள் சுற்றி வலி, வயிறு உப்பல், தூக்கத்தில் பல் கடித்தல், மாலைக்கண், குழந்தைகளுக்குத் தெற்கத்திக் கணை, குழந்தை இசிவு, மூக்கில் புண் ஆகிய குணங்களை விளைவிக்கும்.

குடற் கிருமிகளினால் கிராணி, பவுத்திரம், மூலம், மலக்கட்டு, தேகக் காங்கை, சுரம், மயிர் உதிர்தல், குட்டம், சொறி சிரங்கு, படை, கரப்பான் முதலிய நோய்களை உண்டாக்கும் என்று, கிருமிகளினால் உண்டாகக் கூடிய உடல் பாதிப்பு விரித்துரைக்கப்படுகிறது.

கிருமிகள் உருவாகக் காரணம்

கரப்பான், கிராணி, பவுத்திரம், மூலம், மலக்கட்டு, தேகக் காங்கை முதலிய நோய்கள் உண்டாகும் வழிகளை ஆராய்ந்தால், அவை, உடலின் சூட்டினாலேயே உருவானவை எனத் தெரியும்.அதிகமான உடலுறவின் காரணத்தினால் உடல் சூடுண்டாகி, அச்சூடு கொழுப்பு, தசை யாவற்றையும் தாக்கி, கிருமிகளை உண்டாக்கும். அக்கிருமிகள் உடலைத் துளைத்துக் கொண்டு எங்கும் பரவி விஷ கரப்பான் என்னும் நோயை உண்டாக்கித் தினவை விளைவிக்கும்.

அதே மாதிரியான உடற்சூடு மலத்தைத் தீய்த்து, கட்டுண்டாக்கித் துர்நாற்றமுண்டாக்கும். மலம்அழுகிக் கிருமிகளை உண்டாக்கும். அவை குடலுக்குள், உண்ணும் உணவை உண்டு வளர்ந்து குட்டம், வெடிப்புண்,சொறி, கரப்பான், கிராணி, பவுத்திரம், சுக்கிலப் பிரமேகம் போன்ற நோய்களை உருவாக்கும். மேலும் குடற்புழுக்களால் மலத்துவாரத்தில் இரத்தம், சீழ், நீர்க் கசிவு, முளைமூலம், வயிறு பொருமல், வாய்வு, புழுக்கடி, சோகை, குன்மம், சயநோய், மலடு, பெருவயிறு, சுக்கில நட்டம், உடல் தடிப்பு போன்ற நோய்களும் உண்டாகும்.

நோய்க் கிருமிகளால் உடலுக்கு நேரக் கூடிய விளைவுகளை விவரித்துள்ளது, நோய் வரும் வழிகளை யெல்லாம் கண்டறிந்ததின் விளைவாகவே எனலாம். எவையெவை நோயைத் தரவும், உண்டாக்கவும் வல்லவை என்பதை உணர்ந்து உணர்த்தினால் மட்டுமே நோயிலிருந்து விலகவும், நோயிலிருந்து உடலைப் பாதுகாத்துக் கொள்ளவும் இயலும் என்பதை அறிந்தே சித்த மருத்துவத்தின் செயல்பாடுகள் அமைந்திருக்கின்றன எனல் பொருந்தும்.

கண் நோய் :

கண் மருத்துவம் என்பது இன்றைய காலத்தில் சிறந்த இடத்தைப் பிடிப்பதைப் போலவே, தமிழ் மருத்துவ நூலாரும் கண் மருத்துவத்தைச் சிறந்த மருத்துவமாக வளர்த்தனர் எனலாம்.

பொதுக் காரணங்கள் :

வேகங்களின் வழியே உண்டாகும் தீவினையாகிய நோய்களையும், வெம்மையால் உண்டாகும் எரிச்சலையும், புவன போகங்களின் மேல் கொண்ட பெருத்த ஆர்வத்தால் உண்டான பற்பல நோய்களும், அதனால் மெய்யிலும், உள்ளத்திலும் ஏற்படும் தளர்ச்சிகளும், உலக வாழ்க்கை என்று கூறப்படும் இருநூறு துக்க சாகரங்களும் கண்நோய் உண்டாவதற்கான பொதுக் காரணங்கள் என்றும், மனிதன் பிறந்தபோதே உடன்தோன்றி வருத்துகின்ற வேகம் என்னும் பதினான்கு நோய்களும் குறிப்பால் உணர்த்தப் பட்டுள்ளன. அவை : சுவாசம், விக்கல், தும்மல், இருமல், கொட்டாவி, பசி, தாகம், சிறுநீர், மலம், இளைப்பு, கண்ணீர், விந்து, தூக்கம், கீழ்நோக்கிச் செல்லும் வாயு (அபான வாயு என்பர் சிலர்). பொதுவாக ஆராய்ந்தால் மேற்கண்ட பதினான்கும் உடலில் தோன்றும் எல்லா நோய்களுக்கும் அடிப்படையாக உள்ளன என்பது தெளிவாகும். அவை இல்லா மனிதன் தேவனெனப் படுவான்.

சிறப்புக் காரணம் :

சிசுவானது தாயின் கர்ப்பத்தில் இருக்கும் போது, தாயின் வயிற்றில் கிருமிகள் சேர்ந்திருந்தாலும், தாயானவள் பசியால் வருந்தினாலும், தாயானவள் திகிலடைந்தாலும், மாங்காய், மாம்பழம் இவற்றை விரும்பித் தின்றாலும் சிசு பிறந்தவுடன் சிசுவின் கண்களில் நோய்கள் உண்டாகும்.

காசநோய் :

கண்ணில் உண்டாகும் காசநோய், நீலகாசம், பித்தகாசம், வாதகாசம், வாலகாசம், மந்தாரகாசம், ஐயகாசம், வலியுங்காசம், விரணகாசம் என எட்டாகும்.

வெள்ளெழுத்து

கண்பார்வை மயக்கம் என்று கூறப்படும் ‘திமிரம்’ ஏழாகும். அவை வெள்ளெழுத்து, மந்தாரம், மூளை வரட்சி, பித்தம், சேற்பம், நீர் வாயு, மேகம் என்பன.

முப்பத்தேழு வயது வரை கண் பார்வை தெளிவாகத் தீங்கின்றி இருக்கும். நாற்பத்தைந்தில் கண்பார்வை சற்று இயற்கைக்கு ஒதுங்கியும், தெளிவின்றி சற்றுப் புகைச்சலாய்த் தோன்றும். ஐம்பத்தேழாம் வயதிலிருந்து சிறிது சிறிதாகக் கண்பார்வை இருளத் தொடங்கும். கண்பார்வை அறவே நீங்கி இருண்டிடும் நூறாமாண்டில். கூர்மையான பார்வை தரத்தக்க கருவிழியில் அடர்ந்த புகை கப்பியது போலவும், மேகக் கூட்டம் போலவும், பார்வை தடைப்பட்டு, நேராய்க் காணத்தக்க பொருள் சற்று ஒதுங்கிக் காணப்பட்டாலும், பொருள்கள் சற்று மஞ்சளாகவும் நேர்ப்பார்வை சற்று தப்பியும் காணும். இத்தகைய குறிகள் கண்ணில் தோன்றினால் அதனை வெள்ளெழுத்து (திமிரம்) என்று அறியவும். கண்பார்வை வயது ஏறயேறக் குறைவதின் விவரத்தைக் குறிப்பதுடன், பார்வைத் திறன் ஒடுங்குவது இயற்கை என்பதையும் இக்கருத்து விவரிக்கிறது.

கண்ணின் நோய்களைக் குறிப்பிட்டு அதன் தோற்றத்தையும் வண்ணத்தையும் குறிப்பிட்டுக் காட்டியிருப்பது மருத்துவ நூலாரின் ஆழ்ந்த மருத்துவப் புலமை நன்கு விளங்கக் கூடியதாக இருக்கிற தெனலாம்.

தலைநோய் :

உடம்பு எண் சாண் அளவு, அவ்வுடம்பில் உண்டாகும் நோய்கள் 4448, அவற்றில் தலையில் தோன்றும் நோய்கள் 1008 என்று குறிப்பிடுவர். ஒவ்வொரு உறுப்பிலும் உண்டாகும் நோய்கள் என்று குறிப்பிடும் அங்காதி பாதம், தலையின் உறுப்புகளாகக் கொண்ட கபாலம் வாய், மூக்கு, காது, கண், பிடரி, கன்னம், கண்டம் ஆகிய எட்டுப் பகுதிகளில் வரும் நோய்கள் மொத்தம் 552 என்கிறது. ஆனால், தலை நோயைக் குறிப்பிடும் நாகமுனிவர் 1008 என்கிறார். இதனால் நாக முனிவர் தலைநோய் மருத்துவத்தில் கொண்டிருந்த ஆழ்ந்த ஈடுபாடும், ஆய்வும் புலப்படும். மேலும், அம்முனிவர் எண்ணூற்று நாற்பத்தேழு நோய்களைத் தன்னுடைய அனுபவத்தினால் உணர்ந்ததாகக் கூறுவதும் குறிப்பிடத்தக்கது.

தலை உறுப்புகளில் உண்டாகும் நோய்களின் எண்ணிக்கை

ஒவ்வொரு உறுப்பிலும் எத்தனை நோய்கள் உண்டாகும் என்ற குறிப்பினைத் தருகின்றபோது, தலையின் உச்சியில் நாற்பத்தாறு மூளையில் (அமிர்த்தத்தில்) பதினாறு, காதில் நூறு, நாசியில் எண்பத்தாறு, அலகில் முப்பத்தாறு, கன்னத்தில் நாற்பத் தொன்பது, ஈறில் முப்பத்தேழு, பல்லில் நாற்பத்தைந்து, நாக்கில் முப்பது நான்கு, உண்ணாக்கில் இருபது, இதழில் பதினாறு,நெற்றியில் இருபத்தாறு, கண்டத்தில் நூறு, பிடரியில் எண்பத் தெட்டு,புருவத்தில் பதினாறு, கழுத்தில் முப்பத்தாறு, என, தாம் அனுபவத்தினால் உணர்ந்தவற்றை மட்டும் குறிப்பிடு கின்றார். ஆனால், எந்த முறையைக் கொண்டு 1008 என்ற எண்ணின் தொகையைக் கூறினார் என்பது குறிப்பிடப் படவில்லை.

கபால நோயின் வகை :

வாதம் முதலாகக் கொண்ட முக்குற்றங்களினால் வரும் நோய்கள்10, கபாலத் தேரை1, கபாலக் கரப்பான் 6, கபாலக் குட்டம் 5, கபாலப் பிளவை 10, கபாலத் திமிர்ப்பு2, கபாலக் கிருமி2, கபாலக் கணப்பு3, கபால வலி1, கபாலக் குத்து1, கபால வறட்சி1, கபால சூலை3, கபால தோடம்1 ஆக 46–ம் உச்சியில் தோன்றும் வகையாகக் குறிப்பிடுவர்.

தலையில் தோன்றும் நோய்களில் கண், காது, தொண்டை, மூக்கு, ஆகியவையும் அடங்கும். தற்காலத்தில் கண் மருத்துவம் எனத் தனியாகவும், காது, தொண்டை, மூக்கு ஆகியவை தனியாகவும், மூளை மருத்துவம் தனியாகவும்–சிறப்பு மருத்துவமாகவும் கொள்ளப் படுகின்றன. ஆனால் சித்த மருத்தவம் அனைத்தையும் ஒன்றுடன் ஒன்று தொடர்புடையவை என்பதால் தனித்தனியே கருதாமல் ஒன்றாகவே கருதியிருக்கக் கூடும். அறிவியல் வளர்ச்சி என்பது தலைக்காட்டாத காலத்திலேயே அறிவியல் முறைக்கு உகந்ததாகச் சித்த மருத்துவத்தை வளர்த்தனர். மூளையில் உருவாகும் குற்றங்களைக் கண்டறிந்து அவை பதினாறு வகை நோயென உரைத்திருப்பது கருதுதற்குரியதாகும்.

அம்மை நோய் :

அம்மை நோய் என்னும் இந்நோயை வைசூரி நோய் என்று சித்த மருத்துவம் குறிப்பிடுகிறது. இந்நோய் வருவதற்குக் காரணமாக அமைவது வெப்பமாம். இதனை வெக்கை நோய் என்றும் குறிப்பிடக் காணலாம்.

மேலும், அம்மை நோய்க்குக் குரு நோய், போடகம் என்னும் பெயர்களும் வழங்கப்படுகின்றன.

அம்மைநோய், உடலில் ஏற்படுகின்ற அழலின் காரணத்தினால் உடலில் சூடு உண்டாகி, மூளை கொதிப்படைந்து, எலும்பைத் துளைத்துக் கொண்டு உண்டாகின்றது என்று மருத்துவ நூல் குறிப்பிடுகிறது.

இந்திய மருத்துவ வரலாற்றில் பெரும்பாதிப்பை உருவாக்கியது பெரியம்மை என்னும் வைசூரி நோய். இந்நோய் உயிர்க்கொல்லி நோயாக இருந்தது.

அம்மை நோயால் கண்கள் பாதிப்படையும். தோலில் பள்ளங் களைக் கொண்ட புள்ளிகளை ஏற்படுத்தும். அப்புள்ளிகள் என்றும் மாறாமல் இருப்பதுண்டு.

சித்த மருத்துவம் கண்டறிந்த அம்மை நோய்கள் பதினான்கு. அவை,

1. பனை முகரி 2. பாலம்மை

3. மிளகம்மை 4. வரகுதரியம்மை

5. கல்லுதரியம்மை 6. உப்புதரியம்மை

7. கடுகம்மை 8. கடும்பனிச்சையம்மை

9. வெந்தயவம்மை 10. பாசிப்பயறம்மை

11. கொள்ளம்மை 12. விச்சிரிப்பு அம்மை

13. நீர்கொள்ளுவன் அம்மை 14. தவளை அம்மை

என்பனவாகும். இந்நோய்ப் பெயர்கள் அனைத்தும் அம்மைப் புள்ளிகள் தோன்றுவதைக் கொண்டும், அம்மை நோயுற்றவரின் செயலைக் கொண்டும் காரணப் பெயரால் சுட்டப்படுகின்றன. இந்நோய் பெரும்பாலும் குழந்தைகளுக்கு வரும் நோயாகவே கருதப்படும். அதுவும் கோடைக் காலமான வேனிற் காலத்திலேயே வரும்.

ஆண், பெண், அலியாவது ஏன்?


"பாய்கின்ற வாயு குறையிற் குறளாகும்
பாய்கின்ற வாயு இளைக்கின் முடமாகும்
பாய்கின்ற வாயு நடுப்படின் கூனாகும்
பாய்கின்ற வாயு மாதர்க்கில்லை பார்க்கிலே"
(திருமந்திரம் 480)

ஆணின் உடலிருந்து விந்து வெளிப்படும்போது அவனது வலது நாசியில் சுவாசம் ஓடினால் ஆண் குழந்தை தரிக்கும். இடது நாசியில் ஓடினால் பெண் குழந்தை பிறக்கும். ஆனால் இரு நாசிகளிலும் இணைந்து சுழுமுனை சுவாசம் ஓடினால் கருவுரும் குழந்தை அலியாகப் பிறக்கும் என மூலர் கீழ்வரும் வரிகளில் விவரிக்கிறார்.

குழவியும் ஆணாம் வலத்தது ஆகில்
குழவியும் பெண்ணாம் இடத்து ஆகில்
குழவியும் இரண்டாம் அபானன் எதிர்க்கில்
குழவியும் அலியாகும் கொண்டகால் ஒக்கிலே
(திருமந்திரம் 482)

அது சரி, ஒரு சிலருக்கு வழக்கத்திற்கு மாறாக ஒன்றுக்கு மேலாக ஒரே சமயத்தில் பிறப்பதேன்? அதற்கும் திருமூலர் பதில் கூறுகிறார். விந்து வெளிப்படும்போது அபானவாயு அதனை எதிர்க்குமானால் ஒன்றுக்கு மேற்பட்ட குழந்தைகள் தரித்துப்பிறக்கும்.

கருத்தரித்து விட்டது, நமக்கும் ஒரு குழந்தை பிறக்கப்போகிறது என பல எதிர்ப்பார்ப்புடன் இருக்கும் தம்பதியினருக்கு அதிர்ச்சி தரும் கருச்சிதைவு ஏற்படுவது ஏன்? உடல் உறவின் போது ஆண்-பெண் இருவரின் சுவாசமும் நாடித் துடிப்பும் இயல்பாக இல்லாமல் தாறுமாறாக இருந்தால் கருச்சிதைவு ஏற்படும் என்கிறார் திருமூலர்.

கொண்டநல் வாயு இருவர்க்கும் ஒத்தேறில்
கொண்ட குழவியும் மோமள மாயிடும்
கொண்டநல் வாயு இருவர்க்கும் குழறிடில்
கொண்டதும் இல்லையாம் கோல்வளை யாட்கே

மூளை வளர்ச்சி குன்றிய குழந்தை பிறப்பதற்குக் காரணம், உடலுறவு கொள்ளும்போது பெண்ணின் வயிற்றில் மலம் மிகுந்திருத்தலே காரணம் என்கிறார் திருமூலர். மேலும் உடலுறவு கொள்ளும்போது பெண்ணின் வயிற்றில் சிறுநீர் அதிகமிருந்தால் கருத்தரிக்கும் குழந்தை ஊமையாக இருக்கும் என்கிறார். பெண்ணின் வயிற்றில் மலமும் சலமும் சேர்ந்து மிகுந்திருந்தால்குழந்தை குருடனாகவே பிறக்கும் என்றும் கூறுகிறார் மூலர். எப்படி?

"மாதா உதரம் மலமிகில் மந்தனாம்
மாதா உதரம் சலமிகில் மூங்கையாம்
மாதா உதரம் இரண்டொக்கில் கண்ணில்லை
மாதா உதரத்தில் வந்த குழவிக்கே
(திருமந்திரம் 481)

சரி, குறைகளற்ற குழந்தைகள் பிறக்க வேண்டுமென்றால் என்ன செய்ய வேண்டும்? அதற்கு திருமூலர் தரும் பதில் என்ன? உடலுறவின்போது ஆணின் விந்து வெளிப்படும்போது இருவருடைய சுவாசத்தின் நீளமும் திடமும் ஒத்து இருந்தால் குறையற்ற குழந்தை கருத்தரிக்கும் என்கிறார். ஆனால் ஆணின் சுவாசத்தின் நீளம் குறைவாக இருந்தால் கருத்தரிக்கும் குழந்தை குள்ளமாக இருக்கும். ஆணின் சுவாசம் திடமின்றி வெளிப்பட்டால் தரிக்கும் குழந்தை முடமாகும் என்று கூறுகிறார். வெளிப்படும் சுவாசத்தின் நீளமும் திடமும்ஒருசேரக் குறைவாக இருந்தால் குழந்தை கூனாகப் பிறக்கும்.

For the first time in humans,Doctors will be able to deliver drugs to previously inaccessible parts of the brain.

For the first time in humans, researchers have managed to penetrate the brain’s protector, meaning that doctors will be able to deliver drugs to previously inaccessible parts of the brain.
brain
Image: Juan Gaertner/Shutterstock
The blood-brain barrier is a network of cells that separates the brain from the rest of the body, preventing harmful toxins and chemicals in the blood stream from entering the brain tissue. This blocking mechanism makes it very difficult to deliver drugs to the brain for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.
This protective barrier has been opened in animals but never in humans, until now. A medical start-up company CarThera in France, have opened and closed the barrier on demand with the help of an ultrasound brain implant and an injection of microbubbles.
The findings were presented last week at the Focused Ultrasound symposium in the US by Michael Canney, a neuroscientist at CarThera. The study involved the treatment of glioblastoma - the most aggressive form of brain cancer -  in four patients. Patients with glioblastoma usually need surgery to remove the tumour, after which they are given chemotherapy drugs to destroy any remaining cancerous cells. The blood-brain barrier becomes leaky when a tumour is present, so a small amount of the drugs are able to enter the brain. 
“If more of the chemotherapy drugs could get through, they’d do a better job of killing cancer,"Caney told Chris Weller from Medical Daily. 
To penetrate the barrier, the surgeons first inserted a tiny ultrasound brain implant into the patients’ skulls. They then injected microbubbles to counter the ultrasound imaging. When the ultrasound’s pulses collided with the bubbles, it caused them to vibrate, pushing apart the cells of the blood-brain barrier. To confirm the observations, an MRI scan showed that the microbubbles were effectively crossing the blood-brain barrier.
"We hope this means the chemotherapy drug is doing the same thing," Canney told Helen Thomson from New Scientist.
The team estimate that the novel approach keeps the barrier open for up to six hours, allowing enough time to deliver high dosages of the drugs. 
It has been suggested in animal models that simply opening up the barrier can reduce the protein plaques in an Alzheimer’s patient. Canney and his colleagues will now look at these interactions, and study the role of the immune system in these observations.
"We think we will have a significant effect on these tumours,” Canney told Thompson fromNew Scientist.
Sources: New Scientist, Medical Daily

Wednesday, October 22, 2014

HINDU GODESS OF PREISLAMIC ARABIA :







In pure scientific study about the Historical Muhammad raises basic questions concerning the prophet's role as a moral paragon; the sources of Islamic law; and the God-given nature of the Koran. The scientists even doubt the existence of Muhammad. Scientists say that the Koran is a not a product of Muhammad or even of Arabia, but a collection of materials stitched together to meet the needs of a later age. There was no Islam until two or three hundred years after the traditional version at around 830CE. The Arab tribesmen who conquered in the seventh century vast territory were not Moslems, but were persons who worshiped idols and are scientists call them pagans.
Even though Prophet Muhammad was born in the full light of history the earliest document date about a century and a half after his death. Not only does this long lapse of time cast doubt on their accuracy, but internal evidence strongly suggests the Arabic sources were composed in the context of intense partisan quarrels over the prophet's life. The earliest sources like papyri, inscriptions, and coins on the prophet's life, contradict the standard biography.
An inscription and a Greek account fix Muhammad's birth in 552, not 570. Muhammad's career took place not in Mecca but hundreds of kilometers to the north. Yehuda Nevo. The classical Arabic language was developed not in today's Saudi Arabia but in the Levant.
Long before Islam came in to existence, Kaaba, in Mecca in Saudi Arabia was a pilgrimage site. The word Kaaba might have come from the Tamil Language which originated around 1700BC. In Tamil Nadu Kabaalishwaran temple is Lord Shiva’s temple and Kabaali refers to Lord Shiva. The black stone at Kaaba is held sacred and holy in Islam and is called "Hajre Aswad" from the Sanskrit word Sanghey Ashweta or Non-white stone. The Shiva Lingam is also called Sanghey Ashweta. So what is in Kaaba could be the same what Hindus worship.
The pedestal Maqam-E-Ibrahim at the centre of the Kaaba is octagonal in shape. In Hinduism, the pedestal of Brahma the creator is also octagonal in shape. Muslim pilgrims visiting the Kaaba temple go around it seven times. In no other mosque does the circumambulation prevail. Hindus invariably circumambulate or Pradakshina, around their deities. This is yet another proof that the Kaaba shrine is a pre-Islamic. In Shiva temples Hindus always practice circumambulation or Pradakshina. Just as in Hinduism, the custom of circumambulation by muslim pilgrims around the entire Kaaba building seven times shows that the claim that in Islam they don’t worship stones is not true

INTERESTING FACTS YOU MUST KNOW

1. Your tongue has a unique print similar to your fingerprints. 
2. Your brain is more active at night than during the day. 
3. If you squeezed out all of the bacteria from your intestines, you could almost fill up a coffee mug. 
4. Undertakers report that human bodies do not deteriorate as quickly as they used to. The reason, they believe, is that the modern diet contains so many preservatives that these chemicals tend to prevent the body from decomposition too rapidly after death.
5. Facial hair grows faster than any other hair on the human body, which explains the 5 o clock shadow that men get.
6. The storage capacity of human brain exceeds 4 Terabytes.
7. The acid in your stomach, that which helps digest your food, is strong enough to dissolve razor blades! Don’t try swallowing metal objects to prove this, but hydrochloric acid (found in the stomach) can dissolve a variety of metals.
8. Women’s hearts beat faster than men’s due to having a smaller area to pump blood to.
9. Your stomach lining replaces itself every three to four days. If it did not do this your stomach would digest itself. If you have ever had a stomach ulcer you will know how painful this is.
10. A scientist discovered this weird medical fact – the left lung is smaller than the right lung to make room for the heart.
11. During your lifetime you will produce enough saliva to full up two swimming pools.
12. Every time you sneeze it reaches speeds of over 100mph, which is why people struggle to keep their eyes open when they sneeze.
13. This random medical fact is one for the ladies – women have a better sense of smell than men and continue to have a better sense of smell throughout their lives.
14. Everyone has a unique smell, except for identical twins.
15. The attachment of the human skin to muscles is what causes dimples.
16. In 1972, a group of scientists reported that you could cure the common cold by freezing the big toe.
17. The number one cause of blindness in the United States is diabetes.
18. People who laugh a lot are much healthier than those who don't. Dr. Lee Berk at the Loma Linda School of Public Health in California found that laughing lowers levels of stress hormones, and strengthens the immune system. Six-year-olds have it best - they laugh an average of 300 times a day. Adults only laugh 15 to 100 times a day.
19. In 1815 French chemist Michael Eugene Chevreul realized the first link between diabetes and sugar metabolism when he discovered that the urine of a diabetic was identical to grape sugar.
20. The first Band-Aid Brand Adhesive Bandages were three inches wide and eighteen inches long. You made your own bandage by cutting off as much as you needed.
21. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 18 million courses of antibiotics are prescribed for the common cold in the United States per year. Research shows that colds are caused by viruses. 50 million unnecessary antibiotics are prescribed for viral respiratory infections.
22. It takes an interaction of 72 different muscles to produce human speech.
23. The first known heart medicine was discovered in an English garden. In 1799, physician John Ferriar noted the effect of dried leaves of the common plant, digitalis purpurea, on heart action. Still used in heart medications, digitalis slows the pulse and increases the force of heart contractions and the amount of blood pumped per heartbeat.
24. Coca-Cola contained Coca (whose active ingredient is cocaine) from 1885 to 1903.
25. Ketchup was sold in the 1830s as medicine.